Blog - Butterfly Gear

King of the Forests

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

The 'Forest King'

A glorious big butterfly that specialises in forest living

The Forest King Charaxes Charaxes xiphares (sometimes shortened to ‘Forest King’) is a butterfly species in the Charaxinae subfamily of the Nymphalidae, found across eastern and southern Africa within Afromontane and Mistbelt forests. These elevated habitats are separated by stretches of lowland forest, savanna, grassland, fynbos, and even desert, making them resemble an archipelago of islands in the sky. The butterflies rely on the cool, moist conditions these unique forests offer.

There are 24 recognised subspecies of the Forest King, distributed among suitable forest patches along the continent’s eastern regions. Their range extends from Grootvadersbosch in the Western Cape at 34º south and 350 metres elevation, up to Mount Kulal in Kenya at 2º north and 1800 metres high. That’s a range of almost 5000km! Subspecies vary in the size of white markings on male hindwings and the colour of female hindwing patches. The caterpillars feed on various plants, including Cape quince Cryptocarya woodii, Shiny-leaf buckthorn Rhamnus prinoides, and Cat-thorn Scutia myrtina in South Africa.

These are large, majestic butterflies with wingspans typically 65-85mm in males, and 70-95mm in females. They are very popular with visitors to Africa’s forests. Because they typically remain high in the forest canopy, spotting them can be tricky—but there are ways to improve your chances.

If you want to learn more about this and other special forest butterflies you can do so on our Forest Butterflies biome course.

These male Forest Kings display a range of variation on their upper sides. The Magoebaskloof Forest King (top left) exhibits white patches within the blue hindwing discal band; a trait common among northern populations. By contrast, the Western Forest King (top right), despite some light reflection from the camera flash, clearly lacks these white markings. In the centre, two Midlands Forest Kings appear quite different from each other; lighting is a factor, with the left individual photographed under diffused flash and the right one captured in natural outdoor light.

Moreover, the left Midlands Forest King comes from a Dlinza Forest population in Scarp Forest at 500 meters elevation in Eshowe, whereas the right one belongs to a Moorfield population in Northern Afrotemperate Forest in the Drakensberg mountains, nearly 1800 meters high.

The Forest Kings‘ undersides are highly camouflaged and also variable, as seen in the bottom two images. Here, it’s the pattern of the markings that matters more than the colours themselves, since colouration can change depending on wing wear and lighting conditions.

Some of these images show the butterflies sucking on what appears to be sap leaking from the trees’ bark. Whilst this is a normal source of nutrition for Charaxes butterflies, these were attracted to bait made from fermented bananas and alcohol. This is the ‘cheat’ trick for viewing these canopy dwellers. Open a pub, stock it with some nice boozy treats, and in they come!

The photo at Moorfield is a rare example of natural perching behaviour of a male. It’s possible to get on a level with the canopy from one of the cliff edges and with a long enough lens get a photo. As my friend Angus Burns has done here.

Forest Kings are sexually dimorphic – females look very different to males. Female Forest Kings (not to be confused with Forest Queens; Euxanthe wakefieldi, a different butterfly species that highlights the challenges of common naming conventions) also display variable upper wing surfaces. The nominate Forest King female Charaxes xiphares xiphares from Knysna Forest, illustrated top left, features a yellow hindwing discal patch similar to that of the Midlands Forest King female depicted to the right. However, their forewing markings differ; the nominate form shows more extensive pale areas, and the inner margin markings are yellow. The Western Forest King female, shown in the centre right and photographed at the westernmost edge of the range, closely resembles the Knysna population except for her cream-coloured, rather than yellow, hindwing discal patch.

The Magoebaskloof Forest King, shown at middle left, is characterized by a white hindwing patch, a trait observed in Charaxes xiphares populations further north, where the patches may appear white or even bluish. There are two female forms of the Magoebaskloof Forest King: the nominate form kenwayi, presented here, and the lutea form, distinguished by yellow patches. Similarly, the Midlands Forest King exhibits two female morphs: the one shown here and the rare luminosa form, which features white patches.

The underside markings of females are less variable. Base coloration ranges from mid-brown to greenish-brown, and the width of the transverse white band on the hindwing can vary or be obscured by a brownish flush; however, these variations do not appear to carry functional significance.

The distribution probability map shown below was developed from actual sightings of this butterfly during the LepiMAP project in the 2010s. The pink areas show where Charaxes xiphares populations might occur based on climatic, vegetation and geophysical data. The vegetation map is from Mucina, Rutherford et al in Strelitzia issue 19, 2006 – Afrotemperate, Subtropical and Azonal Forests, page 586. It clearly shows how the different populations of Charaxes xiphares subspecies occur along the forests in the rain catchment areas of the Great Escarpment of South Africa.

DNA-based studies have shown that as a species, Charaxes xiphares is only about 4 million years old. It probably split off from its relatives in the genus Charaxes during the intense uplifting (by 900-1000m), cooling and aridification of eastern and southern Africa during the late Miocene and early Pliocene. This helped fix the local biomes in place, fragmenting the forests into an archipelago, and extending the grasslands and savanna.

The Blue-spotted Charaxes Charaxes cithaeron is clearly closely related to Charaxes xiphares, based on its appearance. Males of both species look very much alike but can be distinguished by the Blue-spotted Charaxes’ brighter blue spots on the upper side of the forewings (especially in the postdiscal area), a larger white patch on the hindwing, and a less distinct dark median band on the hindwing underside.

Female Blue-spotted Charaxes are even easier to tell apart. They feature a wide discal band that curves smoothly from the inner edge to the front edge of the forewing. The patch on the upperside of the hindwing is always blue – not yellow – and their underside markings are less distinct, similar to the males.

Genetic research indicates that Charaxes cithaeron emerged as a species more recently than Charaxes xiphares, dating back only about 2 million years. Blue-spotted Charaxes are mostly found in lower elevation forests such as Scarp and Coastal Forests, where their range slightly overlaps with the Forest King butterfly in regions like Eshowe, lower Lekgalameetse Nature Reserve, and the Wild Coast.

These striking blue butterflies provide captivating insights into our evolutionary history. Comparable large blue species inhabit most forested parts of Africa, and DNA evidence reveals that they were all once connected in the evolutionary past.

South Africa’s rare butterflies

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

The 'Red Zone'

75 of our butterflies are in trouble.

Recently I was sent a copy of this paper: Recent butterfly extinctions in Sweden reveal the inadequacy of site-based protection and the need for landscape-scale management

The three species it mentioned were all IUCN Red Listed and at the extreme northern edge of their European distributions. This made them vulnerable to random changes in their environment pushing them into extinction. This paper shows the importance of well managed citizen science programs like iNaturalist and the Butterfly Monitoring Scheme in providing conservation information on butterfly populations, because the authors relied on such data to support their findings.

Our local butterflies share those vulnerabilities but there are many more of them – 75, to be exact. A paper I recently co-authored with Ernest Pringle (Why is South Africa so rich in butterfly species and why are so many of them endemic?) proposes some possible reasons for this.

Fortunately, in South Africa we have a handle on this. IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, has a system of categorising living organisms according to the threats to their continued existence. It publishes and maintains the Red List of Threatened species.

The Red List has these categories:

Data Deficient (DD)
Least Concern (LC)
Near Threatened (NT)
Vulnerable (VU)
Endangered (EN)
Critically Endangered (CR)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Extinct (EX)

The categories in red are those regarded as ‘threatened.’ As we go down the list the threat of extinction increases.

What does that mean for our South African butterflies?

The Lepidopterists’ Society of Africa teamed up with the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) to assess all 805 of our butterflies (this includes all local races or subspecies). The five criteria used were:

A. Population size reduction
B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy)
C. Small population size and decline
D. Very small or restricted population
E. Quantitative Analysis of probability of extinction in the wild

Scores were allocated scientifically to each of these to calculate the categorisation using the IUCN’s rule book. It was a lengthy process and the people who did it were dedicated to the job. This is what we found:

One butterfly is Data Deficient
719 are Least Concern, which sounds like a relief, but it means that nearly 11% ARE of concern!
However, within ‘LC there are four other subcategories in the South African National Red List – ‘Extremely Rare‘, ‘Rare – Habitat specific’, ‘Rare – Low Density’. and ‘Rare – Restricted Range‘. What separates these from ‘Data Deficient’ is a matter for debate. A couple of examples are shown below.
Seven are Near Threatened, which means that slight changes in circumstances could push them over into the ‘Threatened’ categories.
Twenty are Vulnerable, which is the lowest ‘Threatened’ category and with concerted actions they could be preserved.
Thirty are Endangered. This means that only a few changes to the threats could push them over the edge to extinction.
Twenty-five are Critically Endangered. This means that they are close to the edge and require urgent, targeted action to arrest their decline. Of those twenty-five, five fall into a special category:
Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct. That means they haven’t been seen for a long time but not for the fifty years that would make them officially…
Extinct. Gone, never to return.

The Society has instituted a program called COREL (Custodians Of Rare and Endangered Lepidoptera). A custodian has been allocated to each of the Critically Endangered species.

We could not hope to cover all 75 species in one blog post. Should you wish to see the original assessments they are here, here, here, here, and here

Let's look at a few examples

Data Deficient

Golden Giant Cupid, Lepidochrysops penningtoni is a rare little butterfly from Namaqualand. Its wingspan is only 25-36mm so you might ask how it came to be a ‘Giant’ Cupid; the answer is that some members of this genus really are ‘Giant’ as blues go. The ‘type locality’ is north of Steinkopf in the Northern Cape, which is where the specimen on the right was photographed. Populations exist further south in areas around Kamieskroon, which is where the left hand specimen was photographed. They are so uncommon and we know so little about their habits and biology that their Red List assessment results are too vague for a category to be assigned.

Least Concern but Rare

56 of our ‘Least Concern’ species are categorised nationally under one of four ‘Rare’ subcategories. These have no global Red List status because for various reasons they don’t qualify under any of the five required criteria for that. It does however flag these butterflies for local conservation attention. Here are a few examples.

Langeberg Skolly, Thestor pictus inhabits a tiny patch of rare fynbos in the Langeberg Mountains that is only 3.3 square kilometers in extent, but because it is inside a managed nature reserve its threat level is low. It is categorised nationally as Rare – Restricted Range, Habitat Specialist.

Millar’s Large Buff, Deloneura millari is categorised as ‘Rare – Low Density’ because it is a secretive, skulking butterfly that is seldom seen out in the open, like this one was. They spend most of their time hiding in the foliage feeding on honeydew secreted by scale insects (Bugs). They are reluctant to take wing. Tapping the branches of trees sometimes startles them into flight. If this happens they usually move quickly back into the leaves and refuse to be flushed again. They are quite widespread but this behaviour makes it difficult to work out the true extent of their range.

Natal Yellow-banded Sapphire, Iolaus diametra natalica is categorised nationally as ‘Rare – Low Density’. Scattered populations exist across northern KwaZulu-Natal. It might be less rare than originally thought because of its secretive, skulking habits.

Southern Forest-king Charaxes, Charaxes xiphares occidentalis is only found in tiny patches of Southern Afrotemperate Forest in the Grootvadersbos Nature Reserve. It is nationally classified as Extremely Rare

Near Threatened

There are five butterflies in this category. They all have a limited range but some have a wider range at species level. ‘Near Threatened’ species may become vulnerable to endangerment in the near future, but they do not currently qualify for the threatened status under any of the five criteria.

Bicoloured Paradise Skipper, Abantis bicolor is rare and restricted to fragmented Scarp Forests within the Pondoland and Indian Ocean Coastal belts. It ranges from East London to Eshowe. Many of its localities are under threat from development and agriculture. Because it is found inside protected areas like Dlinza and oNgoye forests, and Krantzkloof Nature Reserve, its conservation status is secure enough to keep it out of the higher categories.

Witsand Ciliate Blue Anthene lindae is found over a wide range of arid Northern Cape savanna at a low density. It is only known from four locations (which are inside protected areas) in a region prone to severe droughts and excessive groundwater extraction for agriculture, hence its Near Threatened category.

Southern Large Glasswing Ornipholidotos peucetia penningtoni is restricted to the far northeast of Zululand. It was thought that it only inhabited Swamp Forest but recently populations have been discovered in wooded lowveld savanna near Eshowe. It is found in southern Mozambique. The nominate subspecies is found in eastern Zimbabwe and northern Mozambique and is more widespread.

Wakkerstroom Widow Dingana alaedeus is a rare montane grassland species found in northern KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mpumalanga. It is found on rocky hillsides of little grazing value, so agriculture is not a high threat. However, that entire area is of interest to the mining industry for its minerals.

Vulnerable

There are twenty butterflies in this category. ‘Vulnerable’ (VU) is the lowest category of threatened species. It means that the organism meets one of the five Red List criteria mentioned above. It is thus considered to be at high risk of human-caused extinction without further human intervention

White-spotted Sapphire Iolaus lulua is categorised as VU B1ab(iii). It has a limited geographic range with few locations. Although some of its populations are in protected areas (such as False Bay Park in Zululand) its numbers are declining and the habitat is fluctuating in quality due to drought and agricultural pressure.

Greyton Dark Ranger Kedestes niveostriga schloszi is also categorized as VU B1ab(iii). It was previously categorized as Endangered because its sole population near Greyton was declining due to growth of the town. Since then, two new subpopulations have been discovered by its custodian, and these are in well-protected, wild areas. However, its limited range and the threat of alien vegetation encroachment in all its locations mean it still falls under criterion B1.

Diamond Opal Chrysoritis trimeni is categorised as Vulnerable under criterion D2. It has an exceedingly small range in the Namaqualand coastline near Kleinsee where it is under threat from alluvial diamond mining of its sand dune habitat. Further threats stem from urbanization of Port Nolloth and McDougall’s Bay.

Estcourt Giant Cupid Lepidochrysops pephredo falls under category VU B1ab(ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(ii,iii,iv,v). Its range is small and shrinking and its habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented. It is known from a few small isolated patches of mistbelt and highland grassland in the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal. Only one of these is inside a formally protected area. The main threats are overgrazing and, in some areas, human settlement. Its custodian has informed local farmers of its presence and encouraged them to avoid overgrazing and other harmful land use practices like frequent fires.

Southern Amakosa Rocksitter Durbania amakosa albescens is categorised as VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv). Its extent of occurrence (B1) is limited, and it is in a severely fragmented or few locations (a) with a continuing decline (b) in extent of occurrence (i), area of occupancy (ii), area, extent, and/or quality of habitat (iii), and number of mature individuals (iv). Its caterpillars feed on lichens growing on rocky patches in moist grassland. It is a sedentary species that is under particular threat because movement between colonies is becoming increasingly unlikely as a result of urbanization of its habitat, potential mining, and unsustainable grazing practices that strip the rocks of the protective grasses that provide shelter for the larvae.

Zulu Yellow Buff Teriomima zuluana is categorized VU B1b(ii,iii)c(ii). Its range (Extent of Occurrence) is less than 20 000 km². There is a continuing decline in its area of occupancy (suitable habitat – condition ‘b’) and a decline in the quality of that habitat. Extreme fluctuations have been observed in its area of occupancy. It is a low density, secretive, rare butterfly found only in the lowland forests and thickets of the northern KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique Maputaland area. Although some populations are in protected areas all of them are under threat from factors such as forest clearance, agriculture, and mining for sand minerals such as titanium.

Piketberg Mintha Veined Widow Torynesis mintha piquetbergensis is categorized VU D2, like the Diamond Opal. It is severely range restricted (Extent of Occupancy 5 km²) on the slopes of the Piketberg and nearby hills. Its range has been reduced by extensive wheat farming in the area. Insecticides used by the farmers are a particular threat because its larvae feed on grasses. Its taxonomic status needs to be revised since its appearance is quite different to the nominate subspecies, which is a widespread butterfly.

Red Hill Russet Aloeides egerides is categorised VU B1ab(iii), a similar subcategory to the Greyton Dark Ranger, but unlike that butterfly it has not had new locations discovered. The opposite in fact – it hasn’t been seen at its type locality at Red Hill for many years and its other five locations (all in scarce low elevation fynbos vegetation) are under severe threat from inappropriate fires, informal housing developments, and the spread of invasive alien plants. A search for additional subpopulations is underway by its custodian, but this is hampered by lack of knowledge about its ecological requirements.

Endangered

Thirty species of South African butterflies fall into this category so again we can only show a small sample here. The main difference between this category and ‘Vulnerable’ is the severity of the risk of extinction. Endangered species face a “very high risk,” while Vulnerable species face a ‘high risk’ of extinction in the wild. This difference is reflected in the quantitative thresholds for each criterion, where the criteria for ‘Endangered’ require a more severe rate of population decline, a more restricted geographic range, or a larger probability of extinction within a specific period compared to the criteria for ‘Vulnerable.’

It’s important to realise that a species’ threat category can change over time. New threats may emerge, like climate change or the discovery of a new mineral ore body under one of the main locations. Our knowledge of the species may also change; new locations may be discovered. Its taxonomic status may be modified if new evidence of its relationship with related species is uncovered, for example by use of DNA technology.

Toothed Russet Aloeides dentatis dentatis is currently categorized as EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii); C2a(i). Originally it was thought to be confined to the Ruimsig Entomological Reserve in Roodepoort, Gauteng, but populations were found along and adjacent to the Witwatersrand and Suikerbosrand mountain ranges near Heidelberg in Gauteng province and eastwards to around Delmas in Mpumalanga province. The status of the subspecies Aloeides dentatis maseruna from the Free State may change and there are several butterflies found in montane grassland to the east that may prove on DNA evidence to be the same species. Ongoing DNA research continues and this butterfly’s Red List status may change in future.

De Hoop Scarce Silver-spotted Copper Trimenia malagrida maryae is one of the subspecies of Trimenia malagrida, most of which are Critically Endangered. Its category is EN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v). This taxon may also be categorized as such because an extremely limited range of only 1369 km² and only three scattered locations, at two of which it has not been seen for at least ten years (including its type locality De Hoop Nature Reserve). Encroaching alien vegetation has recently become a serious threat.

Worcester Opal Chrysoritis rileyi is categorized as EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii). It is found in lowland fynbos in valleys near Worcester in the Western Cape. Its status until recently was Critically Endangered but a large new population was discovered which increased its range by a factor of fourteen and its area of occupancy by a factor of ten (but they are still small enough to warrant Endangered status). Dam expansion and agricultural activity remain threats, as does the encroachment of alien vegetation.

White-spotted Ketsi Giant Cupid Lepidochrysops ketsi leucomacula is categorized as EN A3bc; B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v). The threats faced by this butterfly are severe. It only occurs in the coastal grasslands of south-eastern KwaZulu-Natal province and north-eastern Eastern Cape province. It’s threatened by urban and rural development and overgrazing at most of the unprotected localities where it occurs, as well as other local threats at individual unprotected sites. Certain habitats in Margate where it used to occur, including at the type locality, have been destroyed by urban and agricultural development, and local extinction has resulted at those sites. Its conservation assessment makes for sobering reading because climate modelling has shown that it may lose most of its habitat to bush encroachment by 2050.

Karkloof Blue/Cupid Orachrysops ariadne is categorized EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii). There is some better news about this butterfly, which is found in four small subpopulations in Midlands Mistbelt Grassland on relatively moist and cool south-facing slopes. The land occupied by the largest subpopulation near Merrivale was purchased by a LepSoc member and donated to Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife which is working hard to manage the ecosystem sustainably. The other locations are either inside existing protected areas or private nature reserves where the owners are aware of its presence and are committed to preserving it. However, eventually, climate change and bush encroachment, and invasive vegetation, remain threats.

Yellowish Amakosa Rocksitter Durbania amakosa flavida is categorized as EN C2a(i) and is found in moist grassland amongst rocks which function as a substrate for lichens upon which the larvae feed, mostly west of Durban. There were fifteen subpopulations at nine locations but one of these, near Nkandla Forest, has proven to be the more widespread inland subspecies Durbania amakosa natalensis which is categorized as LC. Although one new subpopulation of flavida was recently discovered south of the Outer West of Durban, many of its locations in that area are severely threatened by urbanization. There is however one subpopulation inside the well protected Krantzkloof Nature Reserve.

Southern Induna Telchinia Telchinia induna salmontana is categorized as EN B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v). This butterfly is found in exposed, high, rocky ridges in mountain sourveld on the Soutpansberg of Limpopo Province. It has a very small range and only four locations, only one of which is protected in a nature reserve. Habitat modification by fire, forestry and human settlements are threats; there is ongoing decline in the number of mature individuals despite there not being apparent habitat destruction. Some localities have been modified by alien vegetation and human interference.

Midlands Widow Dingana dingana is categorised as EN B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v). It is found in Gs8 Mooi River Highland Grassland, usually among large dolerite or sandstone boulders, at an altitude of 1 300 m to 1500 m. None of its subpopulations have been found in conservation areas and one, near Mooi River, appears to have disappeared. relevant landowners on farmland should be included in an awareness program. Relevant landowners on farmland were contacted in an awareness program by its custodian.

Critically Endangered

Critically Endangered (CR) species are considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. The same five measures are used as for the other categories but to qualify as ‘CR’ on the IUCN Red List a species must meet at least one of these criteria:

A 50% or higher chance of becoming extinct in the next ten years or three generations
250 or fewer mature individuals in total
50 or fewer mature individuals per subpopulation
A continuing population decline of 25% or more in three years or one generation
An extent of occurrence (EOO) of less than 100 square kilometers
An area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 10 square kilometers
A population reduction of 70% or more over the past ten years or three generations

Twenty-five of our butterflies meet these criteria within at least one of the measures, which is concerning. Worse, five of them are in an even more threatened subcategory – Critically Endangered – Possibly Extinct. Looking at the species accounts for those it seems as though the criterion is that it has not been seen for more than 15 years and less than 50, which is the cut off for ‘properly Extinct’. And to make it even more complicated one of them turned out to be a ‘Lazarus’ species and was rediscovered during 2022!

Unique Ranger Kedestes lenis lenis is categorised CR B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v). It has an exceedingly small range on the Cape Flats where its former habitat has been lost to urban and agricultural development, and the population is severely fragmented. There are four remaining locations. The damp seeps in which the host plant Imperata cylindrica grows are drying out due to groundwater extraction by invasive alien plants and the grass is becoming combustible. Fortunately, Cape Town Metro and the University of the Western Cape have populations in nature reserves they manage well. That said, alien plant encroachment, road building, and problems with fire management are still threats it faces.

Waterberg Acraea Copper Erikssonia edgei is categorised CR B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v). There is only one location with two colonies, in private nature reserves in the Waterberg. The area has been subject to a recent severe drought and the butterfly, after declining in numbers, seems to have disappeared. Monitoring continues.

Adonis Opal Chrysoritis adonis is one of the most beautiful butterflies in the country and has seldom been photographed in the wild. It’s categorised CR B1ab(i,ii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iv,v). It inhabits the northern slopes of the Gydo Mountain near Ceres where it was found in montane fynbos at altitudes of 1 400–1 500 m above sea level, particularly in flat depressions below rocky ridges. It is difficult to assess the threats faced by this species. These may arise from farming activities near the locality, for example the use of herbicides and pesticides. It has not been seen for several years.

Wolseley Skolly Thestor strutti is categorised as CR B1ab(i,ii,iv,v)+2ab(i,ii,iv,v). It has a tiny range and only one location on the mountain slopes near Wolseley. The general area was under forest plantation, which has subsequently been felled/cleared and the area is now managed by CapeNature. Despite this the numbers have been decreasing when monitored, which may be due to drought.

Brenton Blue/Cupid Orachrysops niobe is probably our best-known and most intensively studied Critically Endangered butterfly species. It is categorised CR A2; B1ab(iii,v)+2ab(iii,v); C1+2a(i,ii); D. It was always rare, being known from only two localities – the Brenton Blue Butterfly Reserve at Knysna and Nature’s Valley, but it has been extinct at the latter since the 1970s. Severe drought reduced the Knysna population by 93% from 2014 to 2017. In 2017 a severe fire devastated the area, and the butterfly has not been seen since.

iNkomasi Protea Capys penningtoni is another butterfly facing severe threats and is reducing in numbers as well as range. It is categorised CR C2a(i). It inhabits Montane Protea savanna within an approximate altitudinal range of 1 000 to 2 100 m in the catchment area of the iNkomasi River. Its larva feeds on the seeds of Protea caffra by boring into the flower heads. It has been decreasing in abundance and is now rare at the sites where it still occurs. Local extinction is close to occurring at several sites where it formerly was relatively abundant, including at the type locality near Boston. An alien invasive Harlequin ladybird beetle that roams the butterfly’s habitat, including its oviposition sites, which is known to feed on lepidopteran eggs, is probably the major threat to the survival of the butterfly species. Other threats, probably operating in synergy, are frequent fires and the increasingly abundant bracken and American bramble affecting the host plant.

Wolkberg Zulu Alaena margaritacea is categorised CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii). It is restricted to two subpopulations in the Wolkberg mountain range near Haenertsburg. These are on steep rocky slopes of Woodbush Granite Grassland associated with lichen-covered rocks. When this species was first assessed there was only one locality known, the second only having been discovered in 2013. Both locations fell outside officially protected areas and were threatened by plantations and other factors associated with commercial operations. Through the efforts of the custodian the main site has been proclaimed a special nature reserve and is being intensively managed in attempts to strengthen the population.

Critically Endangered - Possibly Extinct

There are five butterflies in this category. One of them, Swartland Silver-spotted Copper Trimenia wallengrenii wallengrenii, had not been seen for 16 years and had been categorised as CR–PE B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v), Then, in 2022, a colony was discovered on top of a granite renosterveld koppie south of Darling in the Western Cape. This was the ‘Lazarus’ species mentioned above. It will now have to be reassessed.

Paarl Silver-spotted Copper, Trimenia malagrida paarlensis is categorised CR–PE B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii). This butterfly was only ever found on Paarl Mountain and Paardeberg Mountain near Paarl. The Paarl Mountain subpopulation is extinct.

The Paardeberg population has not been seen at the last remaining colony since 2010, despite regular surveys. Invasive alien vegetation and inappropriate fire regimes have reduced the quality of the habitat.

Brenton Opal Chrysoritis mithras, categorised CR–PE C2a(ii)b, was until recently regarded as only being found near Knysna. The same 2017 fire that damaged the Orachrysops niobe colony also seemed to have wiped out the type colony of Chrysoritis mithras. However, in a recent revision of the genus based on DNA phylogeny, populations to the west as far as Stilbaai were recognised as not being Chrysoritis mithras (as had been thought) but possibly a new subspecies of it. The specimen illustrated here is from near Witsand. More work is required to resolve this.

Extinct

There are three South African butterfly species that are regarded as being Extinct (Ex). None has been seen for over 50 years, which is the criterion for extinction. There are no live photos of these species available, but there are images of mounted specimens.

Tygerberg Monkey Giant Cupid Lepidochrysops methymna dicksoni used to occur in Renosterveld vegetation on the Tygerberg Hills near Cape Town. It has not been seen for 50 years despite extensive searching in the known localities. These localities are close to longstanding areas of agricultural activity, housing development and quarry activity.

Mbashe River Large Buff Deloneura immaculata was recorded from three females captured by Colonel J.H. Bowker near “Fort Bowker” … “at the end of December 1863”. Numerous undocumented surveys, by a number of butterfly collectors over the last century, for this taxon have been unsuccessful.

Geluksburg Giant Cupid Lepidochrysops hypopolia is only known from Blue Bank near Ladysmith in KwaZulu-Natal, from records in the 1870s. It has not been recollected since then despite a number of searches.

However, the original collector was reputed to have mislabelled bird specimens. There were some dubious records from near Potchefstroom that may have been this species or its close relative Highveld Giant Cupid, Lepidochrysops praeterita. Some historical records may indicate that the true type locality was some remote spot high in the Drakensberg above Geluksburg. Another ‘Lazarus’ species?

The search continues…

Singing the Blues

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

Singing the Blues

Spotting the 'tinies'

The family Lycaenidae (the so-called ‘Gossamer-winged butterflies’) includes a group commonly referred to as ‘blues’ because many have blue upper wings. They belong to the subfamily Polyommatinae. Identifying them can be challenging since their upper wings often lack obvious distinguishing marks. While many display shades of blue, others are grey, brown, or even black.

Most members of this group are small, with some among the tiniest butterflies in the world, boasting a wingspan as little as 10mm—smaller than a pinkie nail. Their habit of flying close to the ground or settling on low plants can make observation tricky, sometimes requiring you to kneel for a closer look. A telephoto macro lens is helpful in these situations.

Capturing a photo with their wings open may assist identification, but since many look similar from above, sometimes only the wing edges offer clues. Thankfully, the patterns of spots and lines found on the undersides of their wings are usually unique to each species. With a Field Guide and some experience, it’s possible to identify them using these features.

This online guide will introduce some of the more often encountered species, offering insight into the fascinating world of the ‘blues’. There are many of them, so we’ll break them into small groups. Let’s start with ones you might find in your garden.

The Three ‘Z’s (this rhymes if you’re American!)

The commonest ‘blues’ can be the hardest to tell apart. The African Grass Blue Zizeeria knysna, African Clover Blue Zizina otis antanossa, and Tiny Grass Blue Zizula hylax are extremely widespread and are a good place to start. Even their scientific names sound similar! These butterflies all share blue colouring on their upper wings, while their lower wings are pale grey marked with dark spots and lines bordered in white. They are all slow, weak, low flying insects.

The African Grass Blue – Zizeeria knysna knysna is one of the commonest butterflies in Africa and gets its English name from the way it is often found in lawns where its host plants grow, often as weeds. It’s a widespread butterfly that’s covered elsewhere as a garden species on the site. It’s found all over Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, the Middle East, southern Europe, as well as Asia and Australia. It’s a very small butterfly; males vary from 18-23mm, females 21-26mm.

Like most of the Polyommatinae its upper side is fairly plain – violaceous blue in the male with a broad grey-brown border, and in the female, mainly grey-brown with a patch of blue at the base of the forewing, and a dull blue hindwing with a broad grey-brown area towards the costa (leading edge). The blue varies in shade and intensity as the angle of light changes. In strong sunlight it appears more iridescent.

It’s easy to confuse with its close relatives the African Clover Blue and Tiny Grass Blue. Its underside sets it apart from these. Like them, its ground colour is pale grey. The differences are in the patterns of lines and spots, and the shapes of those features. The intensity of these can vary as shown above, and sometimes requires close inspection to make out the details.

The things to watch out for are the shape of the postdiscal series of hindwing dark spots, and the shape of the dark spot below the apex of the forewing (arrow 1). The forewing underside has a black spot at the base of the cell (arrow 2) that is missing in the other two species. As shown above, the postdiscal hindwing series follows a regular, semicircular pattern, and the forewing spot is more-or-less circular.

The courting pair at top left are on a patch of a host plant, Creeping woodsorrel, Oxalis corniculata. This is a widespread lawn weed in the warmer parts of the world. So, if you use weedkiller on it, the butterfly will likely disappear.

Other host plants are Devil-thorn Tribulus terrestris, Cape Pigweed Amaranthus thunbergii, and African Purslane, Zaleya pentandra. It also uses plants in the Pea family, Fabaceae, like Lucerne, Medicago sativa.

The African Clover Blue Zizina otis antanossa is less common in South Africa compared to the African Grass Blue, occurring mainly on the eastern side and as isolated colonies in the southern Cape. Across Africa, it appears widely except in dry regions. Subspecies antanossa inhabits Africa whilst other subspecies extend across Asia, Japan, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. Like the African Grass Blue, this butterfly relies on a widespread weed, ‘Sweethearts’ (Desmodium incanum), also known as creeping beggarweed, Spanish clover, Spanish tick-trefoil, or hitchhikers—a South American invasive species. Its indigenous host plants in Africa are species of Indigofera (Indigos).

On its upper wings, the African Clover Blue displays a brighter, more metallic silver-blue shade than the African Grass Blue, with less violet tint and broader, less distinct grey-brown borders. The hue varies considerably as the angle of viewing light changes. The margin of the hindwing features a sequence of dark spots edged by blue. Female butterflies show an even more vivid blue, with a noticeable wavy pale whitish blue line along the hindwing edges. It’s very slightly larger, on average, than the African Grass Blue. Males vary from 20-24mm wingspan, females 21-28mm.

Identifying this butterfly isn’t always easy, since the blue’s hue shifts with the viewing angle. However, the underside offers a more reliable clue: while the background colour is often a warmer grey than that of the African Grass Blue, this trait can be inconsistent as shown. The roundness of the dark spot below the forewing apex (arrow 1) isn’t always consistent either, sometimes appearing arched. The key indicator is found in the arrangement of the spots—the postdiscal series on the hindwing does not form a regular, semicircular curve as it does in African Grass Blue and Tiny Grass Blue. Specifically, the spot in area R5 of the hindwing (arrow 2) sits farther inward toward the base, which reliably separates the African Clover Blue from the African Grass Blue.

The Tiny Grass Blue Zizula hylax is the smallest among this group of similar species. The wingspan varies from 17mm in small males to 25mm in larger females. Like the other two ‘Z’s it has an extensive geographical range. It’s found almost everywhere in Africa, the Indian Ocean islands, the oriental region, Asia, Australasia, and some of the Pacific islands.

Its host plants are mostly in the Acanthaceae: Dyschoriste, Justicia, and Ruellia species as well as Sticky Acanth, Phaulopsis imbricata as shown. Males are notably diminutive, often no larger than a pinkie nail. The upper surfaces of males display a vivid sky blue colour bordered by a comparatively narrow grey-brown margin, while females typically exhibit a dark grey colouration, occasionally with a hint of blue on the forewings.

There is a degree of size overlap between the largest Tiny Grass Blues and the smallest African Grass or Clover Blues, which can complicate identification based solely on their upper sides. Nevertheless, the distinctive dark markings found on the undersides facilitate reliable differentiation after some experience. Key identification features include an apical dark mark on the tip of the forewing resembling a curved line rather than a spot (arrow 1), two additional dark spots (arrow 2) along the leading edge of the forewing, and an evenly curved black marginal line on both wings (arrow 3), unlike the wavy grey line seen in the other two species. This is outlined in white on both sides, making it more conspicuous.

Further distinguishing characteristics of Tiny Grass Blues are their more elongated, elliptical wings and rounded wing tips. It is an even weaker flyer than the African Grass or Clover Blues, flying low down with rapidly beating wings but never travelling far. When at rest, these butterflies frequently sway from side to side, causing the wings to move rhythmically—a behaviour that has led to their colloquial designation as ‘Waggle Wings‘.

In my next blog on this subject, we’ll look at another group in the Polyommatinae – the ‘Pies and Pierrots’.

Warning signs

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

Warning signs

Don’t mess with me – you might regret it!

We’ve already looked at one defensive mechanism used by butterflies and moths to evade predation – camouflage.

But there’s another – warning colouration.

Warning colours appear to be universally recognised indicators of danger, with red commonly signifying threat. Lepidoptera also utilise additional visual signals, including yellow and black or black and white patterns. These warning mechanisms (known as aposematism) extend beyond butterflies and moths and are observed in other insect groups such as wasps and beetles. The effectiveness of such colouration and patterning depends on the ability of potential predators to perceive colours. Although other forms of warning, such as auditory and olfactory cues, exist, this discussion will focus specifically on the role of colours and patterns.

Warning coloration is not limited to diurnal species; numerous nocturnal moths employ ‘flash’ colours, which are only displayed when the organism is disturbed. A warning pattern or colouration typically indicates that an organism presents some form of threat, such as being poisonous—causing harm if consumed—or venomous—causing harm if it bites or stings. In certain cases, the organism may taste awful, serving as an olfactory deterrent. This is often referred to as ‘unpalatable’ versus ‘palatable’. However, this signalling is not always accurate, as many vividly coloured or conspicuously patterned insects are harmless. In these instances, the warning display functions purely as a form of mimicry or deception, sometimes referred to as ‘mocking.’

There are two main types of mimicry. In ‘Batesian’ mimicry, a harmless species (the mimic) resembles a harmful species (the model). ‘Müllerian’ mimicry involves multiple noxious species that share similar warning signals. Batesian mimics can reduce the effectiveness of warning signals for predators by making them less reliable, while Müllerian mimics may reinforce the warning effects among harmful species. Rather than being a matter of deliberate choice, the similarities in appearance among these creatures have developed over lengthy periods through evolutionary processes. As a result, many non-harmful insects as well as various harmful ones may display similar appearances.

We refer to such relationships as ‘mimicry rings.’ They exist everywhere, especially in the tropics. We have some examples in South Africa – let’s examine them more closely.

The first mimicry ring we’ll show you is the ‘orange with black-and-white wingtips’ ring. This has several palatable species as well as unpalatable ones. The most familiar one is African Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus orientis, (Nymphalidae: Danainae) which is sometimes referred to as the ‘African Monarch’ from its similarity to the American butterfly. It gains its unpalatability from its habit of ingesting bitter alkaloids from certain plants. Some members of the ring are also unpalatable (or distasteful) like the White-barred Telchinia, Telchinia esebria form fulva (Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae) which gains its toxins from its larval host plants, like the Tree-nettle Urera tenax. Closely related is the Dusky Telchinia, Telchinia esebria form esebria. Monarch Looper Aletis libyssa (Geometroidea: Geometridae: Sterrhinae) is unpalatable because its larvae feed on the highly toxic foliage of Wild Loquat Oxyanthus speciosus and its relatives. That is from a totally different superfamily of the Lepidoptera, showing how far and deep Müllerian mimicry goes.

The female Common Diadem Hypolimnas misippus (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae) is a palatable mimic that is extremely hard to tell apart from a Plain Tiger (this post shows you how). Going a little north from South Africa, in Zambia we find another very close palatable mimic, the Monarch False Acraea, Pseudonympha poggei (Nymphalidae: Limenitidinae). Likewise palatable is the female Mocker Swallowtail Papilio dardanus cenea form trophonius (Papilionidae), which shares a common pattern with the Plain Tiger but is easier to tell apart from it. Lowland Bush Beauty Paralethe dendrophilus indosa (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) is a palatable mimic that is a little easier to tell apart. Given that we humans can see most of the differences between these (perhaps with a little prompting!) it might be easy to pooh-pooh this. But put yourself in the position of a hungry bird that’s just had a nasty encounter with a Plain Tiger, and you see a Bush Beauty flapping past. Edible or not? You decide! Are you feeling lucky today?

Now let’s look at another mimicry ring.

The ’Black-and-white’ or ‘Pied’ mimicry ring is extensive and covers several butterfly families as well as some moths. Southern Friar Amauris niavius dominicanus and Novice Amauris ochlea ochlea (both Nymphalidae: Danainae) are unpalatable models related to the African Plain Tiger with a similar chemical defence. Dusky Telchinia Telchinia esebria female form monteironis and female Dark Wanderer Bematistes aganice aganice are both Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae and derive their toxins from their larval host plants. They are a challenge to differentiate – the clue is the forewing upperside which in Dark Wanderer has a notch in the apical band and no white patch on the inner margin. White Bear, Nyctemera leuconoë (Noctuoidea: Erebidae: Arctiinae) is a diurnal moth related to the Tiger Moths – a group known for their unpalatable nature derived from caterpillar host plants. Its slow, hesitant flight pattern and pied markings make it easy to mistake for a Dusky Telchinia.

Moving to the palatable species, female False Wanderer Pseudacraea eurytus imitator is a good mimic of the female Dark Wanderer. Its pale upper side markings are closer to those of the female Dusky Telchinia Telchinia esebria form monteironis. It can be distinguished from both by the pale-ringed dark spots at the base of the forewings, and its porrect, as opposed to lax, antennae. It’s in the Limenitidinae subfamily of Nymphalidae, as is the related Southern False Chief, Pseudacraea lucretia tarquinea. That is a mimic of the Chief, Amauris echeria echeria, although it is not an exact colour match. To make this more confusing for you (and predators) these butterflies are often polymorphic. As well as the white form shown here there is a form with yellow markings. Another polymorphic mimic is the Variable Diadem, Hypolimnas anthedon wahlbergi (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae) whose form wahlbergi mimics the Friar. It has a different form, mima, which appears below.

The small butterflies in the Lycaenidae are generally not as noted for aposematism as the Nymphalidae and Papilionidae. There are a few pied examples like the female Buxton’s Hairstreak, Hypolycaena buxtoni and the Black Pie, Tuxentius melaena melaena (both Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae). These are probably palatable, but we don’t know for sure. Another family with few pied members is the Pieridae (at least in South Africa – there are many such elsewhere). The only truly black-and-white one in South Africa is the female Diverse Albatross, Appias epaphia contracta form limbophora. Many Pierids are distasteful due to the chemicals in their larval host plants.

Going off the theory that more is better and large size reinforces the ‘I taste bad’ message, most mimics are large butterflies like the female Mocker Swallowtail, Papilio dardanus cenea form hippocoonides. This species that has forms mimicking most aposematic colour schemes.

There is another similar mimicry ring to the Pied one; black with yellow markings or pied forewings, yellow hindwings.

The Black-white-and-yellow (or Black-and-yellow) mimicry ring has some similarities to the Pied ring. Several of these species are polymorphic (they possess several colour/pattern forms or ‘morphs‘) and have forms that are part of both rings. The two best-known unpalatable models in South Africa are the Chief Amauris echeria echeria and Layman Amauris albimaculata albimaculata (both Nymphalidae: Danainae). These can be difficult to tell apart. The Chief shown here has yellow forewing spots but don’t be fooled… some individuals have white forewing spots! The Layman always has white forewing spots. The best way to tell them apart is to look at the trailing edge of the hindwing upperside yellow (or cream) band. In the Chief it is sharp edged, in Layman it is soft-edged. These two are models for several palatable species in the Nymphalidae and Papilionidae.

From mima of the Variable Diadem, Hypolimnas anthedon wahlbergi (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae) is a good mimic of either of these Amauris species. It’s polymorphic – the other form, wahlbergi, mimics another Amauris, the Friar. Likewise, the yellow form of the False Chief, Pseudacraea lucretia tarquinia (Nymphalidae: Limenitidinae). This butterfly has a wide range of forms from white to cream to yellow, and the Northern False Chief Pseudacraea lucretia expansa even has a deep orange form. It appears that the shape of the pattern and the general colour make it a ‘multipurpose mimic’ of Chiefs and Laymen, as well as other Danainae that don’t occur in South Africa. Remember, these butterflies occur over a wide area of Africa as well.

Female Swallowtails (Papilionidae) often mimic Amauris species; the males looking different. Mocker Swallowtail Papilio dardanus cenea form silvicola is one form of the polymorphic female of this butterfly. There are several forms that mimic the Layman or the Chief; some have cream forewing spots and others bigger spots, yet others, smaller. This one illustrates it well. The male White-banded Swallowtail Papilio echerioides echerioides is black with broad white bands; the female, like the Mocker Swallowtail, mimics the Layman/Chief pattern. The two species fly together, and the females can be confused. There is only the one female form of Papilio echerioides and in general her hindwing upperside marginal spots are single or joined whereas in Papilio dardanus cenea form silvicola they are usually double.

The female Forest-King Charaxes, Charaxes xiphares penningtoni (Nymphalidae: Charaxinae) exhibits strong Layman/Chief mimicry. The colour of the pale markings varies from subspecies to subspecies. Some have yellow or cream forewing spots; some have white to mauve hindwing bands. This species’ male is very different in colour and patterns to the female, as shown here.

Next we’ll look at a very different mimicry ring – yellow with black spots/stripes.

The ‘Yellow-with-black-spots‘ ring is widespread across many families of Lepidoptera. It even stretches outside Africa to the Fritillary butterflies of Eurasia and North America.

Two examples (from the same subfamily as the Fritillaries) are the Polka Dot Pardopsis punctatissima, which like them has Violaceae as larval host plants, and Marsh Telchinia Telchinia rahira rahira. Polka Dot uses Pigea enneaspermus (Spade Flower) as larval host plant. It has no reputation for toxicity so the butterfly may be palatable but there is no evidence to support that. Marsh Telchinia uses Snakeroot Persicaria attenuata as its larval host plant. Although that plant is considered edible in Africa studies have shown potential toxicity at high doses. Therefore, the jury is out as to whether these are models or mimics!

Beautiful Tiger Amphicallia bellatrix (Erebidae: Arctiinae) is from a subfamily of moths with a well-deserved reputation for deriving toxicity from larval host plants. This species uses Rattlepods Crotolaria species that are known to carry toxins. Leopard Magpie Zerenopsis lepida (Geometridae: Ennominae) is from a tribe known to metabolise as larvae toxins from their cycad (Zamiaceae) host plants. These two species are probably models.

Spotted Buff Pentila tropicalis and Zulu Yellow Buff Teriomima zuluana (both Lycaenidae; Poritiinae, tribe Liptenini) have the typical aposematic colouring of this mimicry ring. This tribe uses lichens and cyanobacteria as larval food. It is likely that the adults carry bitter, toxic phenolic compounds derived from that. Many of them have aposematic colouration and are known to exude bitter smelling liquids when handled. These are also probably models.

Waterberg Acraea Copper Erikssonia edgei (Lycaenidae: Aphnaeinae) is from a group not noted for aposematism. Yet its larvae use a very toxic plant, Yellowhead Curryflower, Lasiosiphon kraussianus, as host. Other members of the subfamily use the same host plant but only this one has this warning pattern.

Macomo Ranger, Kedestes macomo (Hesperiidae: Hesperiinae) is from a small group of ‘Skippers’ that have bright aposematic patterns. Their larvae feed on grasses so this is probably a type of mimicry.

Now let’s look at a tribe of butterflies that specialises in aposematic markings and acts as models for many different mimics.

Butterflies in tribe Acraeini of Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae are known for their bright aposematic appearance and patterns of black spots on a pale ground. The most spectacular mimetic pair involving one of these species is the Acara Acraea, Acraea acara and its mimic, Boisduval’s False Acraea, Pseudacraea boisduvalii trimenii (Nymphalidae: Limenitidinae). In this case the mimic is twice the size of the model, possibly a case of message reinforcement for sight predators! Acara Acraea larvae feed on Adenia and Passiflora species (Passifloraceae) that are well known to carry toxic cyanogenic glycosides in their tissues. Pseudacraea larvae feed on plants in the Sapotaceae like Englerophytum natalense. These plants are not known to carry toxins.

The brightest red Acraeini are in the genus Rubraea, like the Blood-red Acraea, Rubraea petraea. This is one of the reddest butterflies in Africa and its underside carries a typical Acraea pattern of black spots on a paler ground. Its larvae feed on the African dog rose, Xylotheca kraussiana, in the family Achariaceae. This family has many species whose tissues are packed with cyanogenic glycosides, which release poisonous hydrogen cyanide (HCN) when the plant is eaten raw. But the African dog rose is the odd one out and is harmless – which makes one wonder whether the Blood-red Acraea’s traffic light red colour is a bluff or the real thing!

Unexpectedly, the Acraeini have mimics in the subfamily Hesperiinae of the Hesperiidae (Skippers and allies). These families are about as distantly related as it’s possible to be within the butterflies, but then again, some mimetic relationships spread across superfamilies. The two best known examples are Spotted Velvet Skipper Abantis tettensis (shown with a Wandering Donkey Acraea Acraea neobule neobule for comparison) and Variegated Acraea Hopper Fresna nyassae (with Tree-top Acraea, Rubraea cerasa, for comparison). It’s unlikely that the latter two are a true mimetic pair because they have different habitats. However, the Wandering Donkey Acraea and Spotted Velvet Skipper are avid hilltoppers in bushveld country, so they may share a protective resemblance.

Aposematism and its partner, mimicry, aren’t restricted to butterflies and moths. Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and allies) carry a different threat to Lepidoptera. Whereas the latter are often poisonous (or pretend to be), Hymenoptera are often venomous – and have aposematic warning signals to advertise that. Some Lepidoptera have evolved ways to gain protection by mimicking them.

Many species of Lepidoptera mimic Hymenoptera. Probably the closest mimics are the Clearwing Moths in the family Sesiidae. These are relatively little-known in South Africa. Their larvae are usually stem borers. The species shown, Macrotarsipodes tricinctus, currently has no common name. They are extremely good wasp mimics. The Umbrella paper wasp Polistes fastidiatus, seen here preparing a butterfly caterpillar to feed to its grubs in the nest, shows this well. Narrow, clear wings, narrow waisted abdomen with yellow bands, and quivering, mobile antennae. Would you take a chance and pick one up?

Wasps can be brightly coloured, like the Spider hunting wasp, Java caroliwaterhousei. This one has paralysed a Palystes rain spider, which it will bury with an egg to provide food for its larva. There are several brightly coloured wasp mimics in the Arctiinae subfamily of Erebidae, tribe Syntomini. These include Splendorous Hornet, Euchromia follettii, Pleasant Hornet, Euchromia amoena, Heady Maiden, Amata cerbera, and Yellow Sleeved Maiden, Ceryx fulvescens.

The Bombycoid family, Sphingidae (Hawkmoths) has some clear-winged wasp/bee mimics around the world. The widespread Oriental Bee Hawkmoth, Cephonodes hylas virescens, is found in South Africa.

There are many more cases of aposematism and mimicry in South Africa and around the world. All I could cover here was a few of the better-known examples. Remember that all is not necessarily what it seems!

Hiding in plain sight

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

Hiding in plain sight

How Not to Be Seen

(with apologies to Monty Python’s Flying Circus)

As insects, butterflies and moths occupy a low position in the food chain, positioned just above the plants that serve as their primary food source. Many animals prey upon them. Over hundreds of millions of years, these species have developed various adaptations to reduce the likelihood of predation by sight hunters.

Some strategies include developing toxicity (and displaying warning colouration), mimicking toxic species, or using camouflage to avoid detection. Predators such as birds and mammals often hunt visually and may overlook individuals that resemble dead leaves, twigs, or rocks. The wings of adult butterflies and moths facilitate these forms of concealment. It’s not just the colours and patterns on the wings that can hide them. There are all sorts of strategies like patterns that break up their outline. Many moths, in particular, have resting postures that add to the camouflage effect.

Not only do adults employ these tactics; caterpillars and chrysalides are also targeted by predators, especially birds that feed them to their offspring. While they lack wings, their coloration and shapes often allow them to blend into their surroundings.

This adaptive strategy is known as camouflage, and it is common among butterflies and moths. Here we’ll show you a few examples from South Africa.

Because many moths are night-flying (nocturnal) they need to take refuge when at rest during the day. Having cryptically marked forewings and resting with them facing outwards allows many moths to ‘hide in plain sight‘. The image many people have in mind when they hear the word ‘camouflage’ is of a soldier wearing ‘camo kit’. The neutral earth and leat tones combine on this Accented Hawkmoth Nephele accentifera (a member of the family Sphingidae in the superfamily Bombycoidea) to break up its outline and disappear into the background. Its caterpillar uses a different strategy. Its tail horn (to the right) is the same colour as the leaf petioles on the Ficus (fig) host plant and it has pale lateral stripes that mimic the leaf’s veins. Its body is countershaded, being paler on the dorsal (back) surface and darker ventrally (on the belly). This allows it to blend into the foliage and avoid being seen.

There is great variety among the Hawkmoths. Verdant Hawkmoth Euchloron megaera appears to be extremely conspicuous when placed on bark but among green leaves it vanishes, as shown in the slide show in the header. Grey Temnora Temnora murina is plainer in appearance and relies on its dull colour to protect it when at rest.

Superfamily Noctuoidea comprises two large families, Noctuidae and Erebidae. The latter includes many small species that use camouflage. The Decorous Widebar, Metachrostis decora, is difficult to see when resting on mossy tree bark with lichen patches. The Eyed Snout, Hypena erastrialis, is found in woodland areas among dead bark and leaves; its straight median line resembles a leaf midrib.

Walker’s Owl Erebus walkeri is the largest member of the Erebidae with a wingspan of up to 65mm. It spends most of its time hidden in shady places or flying at night but if it is caught out in the open (as this one was) its wavy patterning hides it well against tree bark. Narrow Jigsaw Dysgonia properans is another small species whose geometric forewing patterns help to break up its outline when resting amongst dead leaves.

The family Noctuidae is difficult for the uninitiated to separate from Erebidae because the critical difference lies in the pattern of wing veins in the forewings. This is not easily visible in naturally posed specimens. It has many well-camouflaged small species like White Quaker Mentaxya albifrons which like the Narrow Jigsaw has patterns that break up its outline. White-vein Meliana, Meliana tenebra, is a grassland species whose streaked forewings hide it well when resting among grasses.

The Geometridae family of moths within the superfamily Geometroidea is renowned for its advanced camouflage abilities. Adult moths in this family typically rest with their wings open, exhibiting appearances that mimic leaves (both living and dead), bark, lichen, bird droppings, or twigs. The term ‘Geometridae’, meaning ‘earth measurers’, refers to the locomotion method of their caterpillars. These larvae possess three pairs of articulated ‘true’ legs on the thorax near the head, with only two pairs of ‘prolegs’ at the posterior end of the abdomen. When stationary, they often adopt a rigid posture on their prolegs, closely resembling dead twigs, leaf petioles, or dried leaves. During movement, they extend their bodies forward to grip the substrate with their true legs, then release the prolegs and bring the rear of their bodies towards the head, forming a loop. This sequential motion—alternately grasping and releasing with each set of legs—creates a distinctive looping gait, giving rise to the impression of ‘measuring’ the surface beneath them, which is reflected in their name. The Common Bark moth, Ascotis reciprocaria, is a classic example of this, as shown in the video of its caterpillar walking.

Two notable examples highlighting the diversity within the Geometridae family are the Storm Wave, Chrysocraspeda leighata, and Neptune’s Vestal, Traminda neptunaria. While the adult Storm Wave exhibits striking coloration when displayed on foliage—as demonstrated by this reared specimen—it becomes nearly imperceptible against tree bark. In contrast, Neptune’s Vestal is commonly recognized as the quintessential ‘little green moth on a wall,‘ often serving as an introduction to these moths for many individuals. Its presence among green leaves renders it difficult to detect.

The caterpillars of these species further illustrate distinct camouflage strategies employed by Geometrids. The Storm Wave caterpillar, when adopting a rigid posture, closely resembles the midribs of its host plant, the Hiccup-nut Combretum bracteosum, making it virtually indistinguishable from its surroundings. Similarly, the larva of Neptune’s Vestal mimics the appearance of a dried leaf from its host, a Thorn-tree Vachellia species, enhancing its concealment.

The Confused Omphax Omphax bacoti is a member of the Geometridae family that does not rest with its wings fully open. This species is diurnal, and when disturbed, it exhibits erratic flight patterns within its grassland habitat before rapidly descending and concealing itself. Upon closer examination, individuals can be found hiding beneath green leaves, where they rest with their wings folded downward. The Scribbled Duster Pingasa distensaria, another notable Geometridae species, is relatively large and at rest closely resembles a patch of lichen. This camouflage is effective on tree bark and equally so in environments where lichen is present, such as rocks or walls.

The superfamily Bombycoidea encompasses several moth families aside from the Sphingidae. Notably, the Notodontidae are recognised for their conspicuous and weirdly shaped larvae, although the adult moths—such as the Olive Prominent, Desmeocraera latex, typically exhibit effective camouflage. Their grey-green colouration provides concealment on tree bark or among foliage. The Saturniidae family includes some of the largest moth species, including the Saturnine Emperor, Lobobunaea angasana, which is the largest moth in South Africa with a wingspan reaching up to 210mm. The forewings of this species are a subdued grey-brown colour that mimics dead leaves, complete with a simulated ‘midrib’. When at rest with forewings covering hindwings it is almost invisible among fallen leaves on the forest floor. This species employs not only camouflage but also a secondary defence mechanism: when threatened, it exposes its hindwings marked with prominent red eyespots. This startle display induces a shock reflex in potential predators, affording the moth an opportunity to evade capture.

Another representative, the Related Lappet, Leipoxais acharis of the family Lasiocampidae, demonstrates defensive adaptations at both life stages. The caterpillars use chemical deterrents such as irritating bristles or stinging hairs, while adults employ morphological mimicry, resembling dead leaves.

The Pyraloidea constitutes another substantial moth superfamily, primarily consisting of small to minute species. Within it is the Crambidae family, many of which exhibit vibrant coloration; however, the subfamily Crambinae, commonly referred to as ‘Grass Moths’, predominantly rely on cryptic colouring for concealment among dry grass stems and leaves. The Shining Grass Moth, Ancylolomia chrysographellus, exemplifies these adaptive strategies.

The superfamily Papilionoidea in South Africa encompasses five butterfly families. While the majority of these species are diurnal, there are exceptions. Many exhibit vividly coloured dorsal wing surfaces, which often serve a role in sexual display. Conversely, when resting with closed wings, these butterflies become susceptible to predation, making camouflage an important defensive mechanism.

Among the largest families within Papilionoidea is the Nymphalidae, commonly referred to as the Brush-footed Butterflies. Many species in this family are noted for their vividly coloured dorsal wing surfaces, or upper sides, which they often display prominently. For concealment, however, these butterflies typically rely on effective camouflage on the ventral surface (underside). A notable example is the Dead-leaf Commodore Precis tugela, whose bright orange upper side contrasts sharply with its ventral side, an exceptional mimic of a dead leaf. The royal blue male Blue-spotted Charaxes Charaxes cithaeron utilizes his striking upper side for display purposes within the forest canopy, particularly to assert dominance over rivals or attract potential mates. Conversely, when feeding at ground level—often on animal dung—the butterfly’s grey-green underside aids in blending into its surroundings. Occasional flashes of the upper wing colours serve as threat displays to deter competitors.

The Satyrinae subfamily of the Nymphalidae, commonly called ‘Browns’ and ‘Ringlets,’ is noted for its use of camouflage. Species such as the Black-haired Bush Brown Bicyclus safitza safitza and the Common Evening Brown Melanitis leda are crepuscular, typically active during dawn and dusk. These butterflies often inhabit shaded wooded areas, resting near the ground among fallen leaves. Their undersides are camouflaged, helping them avoid predators. The Common Evening Brown possesses large forewing eyespots that may deter potential threats, similarly to Emperor Moths. The grass-feeding caterpillars are camouflaged by their colours, although being crepuscular they are seldom seen anyway.

Species within the genus Pseudonympha, also part of the Browns group, are found in grassland habitats. Like other Satyrinae, they display eyespots on their wings which can serve to distract predators. Many such species like the Gaika Brown Pseudonympha gaika have pale streaks on brown backgrounds on their hindwing undersides, aiding concealment in dry grasses.

The Lycaenidae, or Gossamer-winged butterflies, represent another major butterfly family in South Africa, comprising seven subfamilies within the region. These butterflies are generally small, with the largest species attaining a wingspan of approximately 50mm. Despite their diminutive size, they are notable for their distinctive behaviours and striking appearance.

The Poritiinae subfamily is particularly noteworthy for its larval feeding habits, which include non-plant sources such as lichens and cyanobacteria. This adaptation enables them to occupy challenging environments that are inhospitable to many other butterfly species. Within this subfamily, the genus Durbania (commonly known as Rocksitter butterflies) is endemic to South Africa; no comparable taxa exist elsewhere. As the common name implies, adult Durbania typically inhabit rocky areas, predominantly in grasslands, with certain species also present in the Karoo veld.

Durbania amakosa flavida, found near Durban, is classified as a red-listed species. Despite sharing a name, it is not named after the city but rather after Sir Benjamin D’Urban, whose name also inspired the city’s designation. The larvae consume the cyanobacterial component of rock lichens and exhibit effective camouflage, often gathering in groups on the underside of rocks within their environment. The butterflies’ hindwing undersides feature patterns and colours that provide optimal camouflage against lichen-covered rocks. When threatened, the adults rapidly open their wings to display vivid red-and-black upper surfaces. Preliminary evidence suggests these butterflies may be unpalatable to predators; however, further research is required to substantiate this claim.

Within the Lycaenidae family, the subfamily Miletinae is distinguished by its predominantly aphytophagous (non-plant-eating) characteristics. Most species feature caterpillars that are parasitic or predaceous, and certain genera comprise adults that lack functional mouthparts. Consequently, these adults do not consume nectar and must rely on fat reserves accumulated during their larval stage for sustenance. The genus Thestor, commonly referred to as ‘Skollies‘, exemplifies this adaptation: adult specimens inhabit harsh rocky or desert environments and possess camouflage suited to these habitats, such as the Rock Skolly Thestor petra found among limestone formations, or the Roggeberg Skolly Thestor pringlei native to the arid semi-desert regions of the high Karoo. Their upper sides are also dull brown or grey in colour.

The behavioural patterns of the caterpillars are not well documented. Females frequently deposit eggs on dead plant material devoid of greenery, as observed in the Roggeberg Skolly. Other species select egg-laying sites based on the presence of scale insects utilized by their larvae, such as the Basuto Skolly Thestor basutus. This deposition typically occurs in proximity to nests of Pugnacious Ants Anaplolepis custodiens, upon which the caterpillars are wholly dependent, spending their lifecycle within the ant nests where camouflage becomes unnecessary. While some feed on scale insects during early development, all eventually migrate into the ant nests, resembling small white grubs. To date, only a limited number of species have been photographed and documented.

Several notable Lycaenidae species belong to the subfamily Theclinae. These butterflies often feature prominent colouration on their upper wing surfaces and cryptic patterns underneath, such as the Common Fig-tree Blue Myrina silenus ficedula and the Russet Protea Capys disjunctus. The Fig-tree Blue frequently perches on Combretum trees, with its ventral side closely resembling the appearance of the tree’s seed pods. Similarly, the grey underside of the Protea Scarlet provides effective camouflage among the dead flower buds of its host plant.

Russet Protea caterpillars are not reliant on camouflage, as they reside within flower heads, consuming seeds. In contrast, Fig-tree Blues inhabit the shoots and young leaves of fig trees, where their colouration affords them effective concealment.

Some Theclinae are extremely conspicuous as adults like this Southern Sapphire Iolaus silas male. By contrast the caterpillars of this genus are masters of camouflage. Most of them feed on mistletoes in the Loranthaceae family, some of which have leaves covered in short fuzz. Not only does this caterpillar closely resemble a leaf of its host plant, it has covered itself with the fuzz to render itself almost invisible!

The Aphnaeinae subfamily of Lycaenid butterflies includes several visually distinctive species. Many feature vividly coloured ventral surfaces with ‘dazzle‘ patterns designed to disrupt predator recognition—distinct from traditional camouflage. Certain terrestrial Aphnaeinae, such as the Veined Russet Aloeides pierus and Common/Star Opal Chrysoritis thysbe, exhibit earth-toned or stone-coloured undersides that provide effective camouflage while at rest, although some display conspicuous dorsal markings.

The caterpillars of these butterflies are typically associated with various ant species and generally remain concealed during daylight hours.

The Polyommatinae subfamily of Lycaenidae is commonly known as the ‘Blues’ due to the colouration of the upper sides of many species. These butterflies are not typically known for strong camouflage. Most have whitish or grey undersides with dark spots outlined in lighter tones, which blend moderately with various backgrounds and may function as a form of crypsis. For example, the Brenton Blue Orachrysops niobe, now critically endangered, is difficult to distinguish when resting on dead fern leaves. The Sabi Smoky Blue Euchrysops dolorosa displays a bright blue upper side, while its underside provides concealment when at rest on soil.

When in flight, the alternating visibility of their blue and grey colouring can make visual tracking challenging, and their rapid, unpredictable directional changes followed by immediate settling may reduce detection by predators.

Many caterpillars of Polyommatinae exhibit cryptic characteristics. Species of Zebra Blues Leptotes feed on seed pods from several plants, including Plumbago auriculata; these caterpillars resemble the seed pods. The Black-striped Ciliate Blue Anthene amarah caterpillar feeds on Vachellia or Senegalia thorn-trees, and the diagonal lines along its body visually align with the compound leaves of these host plants, aiding in concealment.

The butterfly family Pieridae consists mainly of white and yellow species that may also have darker or red-orange patterns. These characteristics can make them more noticeable, but they also employ various camouflage techniques. The Autumn-leaf Vagrant Afrodryas leda is normally very conspicuous, but here it’s observed resting on yellowed leaves of the Castor Oil plant Ricinus communis. This butterfly is found throughout much of the year in warmer climates and tends to choose yellow leaves as resting spots. It has been seen flying along forest edges and landing specifically on yellow foliage. Research shows that butterflies possess advanced colour vision. Humans are trichromats with cone cells responsive to blue, green, and red light, while pierid butterflies are hexachromats, detecting six wavelengths: ultraviolet, violet, blue, green, red, and infrared. Each lens in their compound eyes contains light receptors specialized for different wavelengths. This capability likely enables butterflies to select leaf colours that closely match their wing colouration for camouflage.

The Pointed Caper White Pseudanaphaeis gidica abyssinica displays a winter or dry season form known as abyssinica, which is commonly seen on dead grass foliage during this period. This form features brown and cream colouring for effective concealment, unlike the summer or wet season forms, which do not exhibit these colours. Camouflage in butterflies frequently relates to seasonal changes in appearance. Although butterflies do not moult like birds, individuals that emerge during the dry season often display different colours or patterns compared to those emerging in the wet season.

Swallowtail butterflies belonging to the family Papilionidae typically represent the largest local species. Few members of this family display camouflage adaptations; most bear undersides that either mirror the vibrant patterns of their upper wings or imitate unpalatable butterflies from other families.

These insects can often avoid predation by simply closing their wings and seeking shelter within dense foliage. Swallowtails commonly emerge from these hiding places at sunrise or after overcast conditions, basking with open wings to warm their flight muscles—a period during which they are vulnerable to predators. If threatened, they react by swiftly folding their wings.

The male Mocker Swallowtail Papilio dardanus cenea is frequently observed sunning itself in this way. Butterfly photographers recognize that early morning walks along forest edges offer prime observation opportunities. With wings closed, this species exhibits an underside pattern resembling dead leaves, and it is known to select roosting spots among dead foliage that matches its wing coloration, similar to members of the Pieridae family.

The male Bush Kite Swallowtail Papilio euphranor also engages in sunbathing. It’s our only endemic Swallowtail and quite rare – it’s only found in high, cool, Afrotemperate forests. It uses a different family of larval host plant to other local Papilio species. Larvae feed on Wild Laurel Cryptocarya woodii instead of the Rutaceae or Apiaceae used by the others. Typically found soaring high over the forest canopy—hence its common name—the cryptically patterned underside of this species is rarely visible due to its active behaviour. However, during mating, these butterflies often close their wings, revealing these concealed markings.

Papilionid caterpillars are large and fleshy and represent an attractive meal to predators. They are usually well camouflaged to protect them. Most are green in colour and counter shaded to assist in hiding them among leaves, like this final instar Narrow Green-banded Swallowtail, Papilio nireus lyaeus.

Some species, like this Emperor Swallowtail caterpillar, Papilio ophidicephalus, have a combination of green and brown bark-like markings to break up their outline. This species is found in forests where many trees have foliose lichens growing on their branches and twigs – this helps in the deception. This individual is exhibiting another protective mechanism of Papilio larvae. It has extended its osmeterium, an organ that flickers to and fro like a snake’s tongue and gives off a strong smell of plant oils. The sudden appearance of this appendage is often enough to startle a small predator into retreating.

The Hesperiidae family, commonly referred to as Skipper butterflies, includes numerous species that exhibit cryptic or subdued colouration. Many species within this family rest with their wings open, similar to moths, displaying upper wing surfaces adapted for camouflage. The Forest Elfin, Sarangesa motozi, exemplifies this trait. These butterflies are challenging to observe in flight due to their speed, agility, and preference for shaded habitats with dappled light. When settled among leaf litter on the forest floor, they become virtually indistinguishable from their surroundings.

A distinct subgroup of Skippers, known as the Sandmen, is characterized by their diminutive size and exceptionally rapid, low-altitude flight. Their erratic movement through the air aptly reflects their common name, as they seem to ‘skip’ and are difficult to track visually. Although not overtly camouflaged when at rest with wings open, their muted coloration and small stature contribute to their inconspicuousness. For instance, the Dwarf Sandman, Ernsta nanus, possesses a disruptively patterned underside that effectively breaks up its outline when resting with closed wings.

Caterpillars of the Hesperiidae are infrequently encountered since they reside within shelters constructed from leaves or debris bound together with silk threads. Both the Orange Elfin caterpillar, Sarangesa phidyle, and the Forest Sandman, Ernsta dromus, were temporarily removed from their shelters for photographic documentation. A distinctive morphological characteristic of all Skipper larvae is the pronounced constriction resembling a ‘neck’ between the thoracic segments and the head. While these species possess green larvae that blend seamlessly into their environment should they venture outside their shelters, others display more vivid coloration, potentially conferring protection through mimicry of unpalatable butterfly species.

The Dark Side

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

The Dark Side

90% of Lepidoptera are NOT butterflies

We are most familiar with the butterflies we encounter in our parks, gardens, and nature reserves. Their bright colours and fascinating behaviour delight our eyes. Yet, did you know that butterflies account for only 10% of the biodiversity within the Lepidoptera?

The remaining 90% are grouped together as moths.

Moths have carried a dubious reputation for centuries. Because many are nocturnal and dull-coloured, they are often ignored at best and, at worst, viewed with superstition or even fear. Since a tiny number of species feed on animal materials like wool, all moths are suspected of wanting to eat our clothes! Their attraction to bright lights is well known, and that’s how most people encounter them – as a morning visitor on the wall.

In the past, moths were seen as the nocturnal, dull counterparts of butterflies. Over time, however, we have learned more about them and gained a better understanding of their true complexity.

Lepidoptera is made up of a number of ‘superfamilies’, each defined by certain broad anatomical characteristics. These are not always obvious to the layperson. The old question, “What’s the difference between a butterfly and a moth?” has become more difficult to answer. I have attempted to demystify it in this short course.

Globally, there are about 46 superfamilies within the Lepidoptera (though opinions vary), of which only one—the Papilionoidea—contains all known butterfly species. Of these, around 30 are found in southern Africa.

Within those superfamilies are species ranging from dull and nocturnal to brilliantly coloured and diurnal (day-flying). This is true not only for butterflies but also for moths. Moths vary in size from almost microscopic to huge—much larger than the biggest butterfly.

To put this into perspective, while there are nearly 700 butterfly species found in South Africa, there are almost 10,000 species of moths. About 70% of these belong to five superfamilies. We’ll explore a few examples here.

Let’s start with the Geometroidea superfamily which derives its name from the appearance and behaviour of its caterpillars. The term ‘earth measurer’ references their distinctive ‘looping’ movement, which has also led to the common name ‘inchworms.’ The Munda Bark caterpillar exemplifies this group, though many species are more slender or possess additional legs.

Geometroidea is an extensive superfamily, comprising over 24,000 species worldwide, with nearly 1,600 recorded in southern Africa across three families. All species mentioned here belong to the family Geometridae, which is further divided into six subfamilies in the region.

Members of Geometridae display considerable diversity in shape, structure, resting posture, and coloration. For instance, the Munda Bark moth mimics lichen patches on tree bark, providing effective camouflage; while conspicuous against foliage, these moths become nearly invisible on lichen-covered bark.

Many Geometridae exhibit green or blue-green coloration, sometimes accented with contrasting red, yellow, or orange markings. The Pink-laced Concealer is among the more visually striking species that are attracted to lights and often observed on walls at dawn.

The Leopard Magpie is a diurnal moth whose larvae consume cycad leaves, making them familiar—if occasionally unwelcome—to gardeners. These caterpillars sequester toxins from their host plants, which persist into adulthood, rendering both life stages unpalatable to predators. Their vivid yellow-orange coloration with black spots functions as aposematic signalling, warning potential predators of their distastefulness.

These are usually quite small moths, ranging in size from wingspans as small as 10mm to 80mm in the largest species.

Noctuoidea is the largest superfamily in the Lepidoptera by some margin. It has about 70 000 species in 5-7 families depending on which taxonomist you agree with. There are just over 3000 species in South Africa, in five families. These are enormously diverse creatures both as adults and as caterpillars.

The species above are all in the family Noctuidae. This has just over 1000 species locally in about 15 subfamilies. Many have the classic ‘moth’ posture with the wings folded over their back like a roof. Also, many are dull little brown jobs like the Amaryllis Borer (which is the one whose caterpillar eats your Clivias)! There are many attractive species as you can see. The Tunnel Droplet has the most amazing shadowed wing markings that make it look like an empty seed pod that’s fallen on the ground. Festive Red Tigers have aposematic warning colouring that advertises their bad tasting nature. They carry irritant chemicals in their blood, that they can squirt from their thorax. This can raise blisters on sensitive skin and the smell has given them the alternative name of ‘Bacon Moth’.

The Golden Plusia has beautiful metallic green panels on its forewings. In some parts of the world it has the name of ‘Burnished Brass Moth’. Pale Cherry Spot is another species with warning colouring. The brightly coloured caterpillars eat geophytes in the Liliaceae and Hyacinthaceae that carry potent plant toxins.

Most of these are fairly small insects with a wingspan of 20-30mm but there are a few large ones nearly 80mm across the wings.

Erebidae constitutes the largest family within Noctuoidea, comprising over 1,500 species distributed across 18 regional subfamilies that exhibit significant diversity. Some groups, such as Arctiinae (commonly known as Tiger Moths), were previously considered separate families, but recent taxonomic revisions have reclassified their former subfamilies into ‘tribes’. Notable members of Arctiinae, including the White Frother and Beautiful Tiger found in the tribe Arctiini, contribute to Arctiinae’s status as the most speciose subfamily among South African Erebidae, with just over 400 species.

The subfamily Calpinae features some of the world’s most distinctive moths. For example, Dot Underwing, a moth with a wingspan reaching up to 90mm, conceals its vivid yellow hindwings beneath forewings marked with patterns resembling dead leaves; when disturbed, it reveals its hindwings to startle and deter predators. This species belongs to the group known as ‘fruit piercing’ moths, which utilise their proboscis to consume fruit juices. Related species may even drink avian tears, and in South America, certain calpines such as the Vampire Moth Calyptra thalictri display hematophagous (bloodsucking) behaviour. The Dot Underwing also possesses an unusually striking caterpillar: jet black in colour, it displays prominent eyespots by ingesting air and swelling noticeably.

Erebinae represents the second largest subfamily of Erebidae with just under 300 species. Many members are nocturnal and characterised by dull brown coloration; Walker’s Owl, the largest Erebid in Africa, boasts a wingspan of up to 140mm. In contrast, the diurnally active Peach Moth exhibits vibrant colouring and has a preference for both flower nectar and fermenting fruits. Though outwardly similar to typical moths, this species is frequently mistaken for a butterfly.

Lymantriinae, or Tussock Moths, comprise another subfamily formerly regarded as an independent family. With 241 species, it ranks third in size within Erebidae. Caterpillars in this group possess defensive hairs arranged in ‘tussocks’ on their dorsal side, capable of causing irritation. Adult Lymantriinae often present feather-like, or ‘pectinate’, antennae. Georgiana’s Tussock is commonly encountered in eastern regions of the country.

Banner Eublemma is a member of Boletobiinae, which is the third largest subfamily, encompassing 232 species. These moths are typically small, with wingspans ranging from 10 to 30mm, and many feature an appealing ‘two-tone’ colouration.

There are three smaller families within the Noctuoidea, two of which are the Euteliidae and Notodontidae. The Euteliidae family consists of mostly brown or cream coloured species; one of the larger and more beautiful species (with a wingspan up to 55mm) is the Venus Turntail. These moths are nocturnal and are strongly attracted to fermenting fruit baits.

The Notodontidae family includes nearly 240 species, which are generally drab coloured, though some, such as the Giant Prominent and Spirited Puss, have distinct appearances. Notodontid caterpillars display a range of shapes, with some exhibiting unique features, like the Spirited Puss caterpillar, which is shaped unusually and has long, whip-like tails that can release formic acid.

The Pyraloidea superfamily encompasses nearly 1,200 species within two local families: Crambidae and Pyralidae. The Crambidae are more prominent, featuring two major subfamilies, Crambinae (142 species) and Spilomelinae (217 species). Members of the Crambinae, commonly referred to as Grass Moths, are generally small, with a typical wingspan of approximately 20mm, and display subdued coloration. The Dotted White Veneer serves as a representative example, frequently observed flying low amid grass.

Spilomelinae, known as Pearls, are distinguished by their striking appearance despite their modest size. While primarily nocturnal, many species are also active during daylight hours. Certain species, such as the Bi-triangle Pearl, are attracted to artificial lights and can be found resting on walls. Others, including the Zebra Pyrale and Florid Pearl, inhabit forest undergrowth and take flight when disturbed, often settling beneath leaves with their bodies aligned downward—a behaviour that presents challenges for photographers.

The Gelechioidea is a large superfamily numbering about 1250 species of mostly tiny moths, many of which are ‘micros’ and are seldom noticed. It consists of 15 families. When viewed under a hand lens or high-powered macro lens they can be surprisingly attractive. Two examples are the Three-Spotted Joyful Moth from the family Scythrididae, and the Dotted Ethmia from the family Elachistidae.

Bombycoidea, while not the largest superfamily within Lepidoptera, is smaller than Papilionoidea (the butterflies) in South Africa, comprising 540 species across six families. Nevertheless, it encompasses some of the largest and most visually striking representatives among moths.

The Eupterotidae, commonly referred to as ‘Monkey’ moths, is one of the smaller families, with 84 known local species. These moths typically range from medium to large in size and are characterized by their soft, fuzzy appearance. Their coloration is predominantly cream to brown with darker markings, although a minority of species are white. Similar to many members of Bombycoidea, adult Eupterotidae lack a functional proboscis and are therefore unable to feed; all nutritional reserves necessary for adulthood are accumulated during the larval stage.

Eupterotidae consists of two subfamilies: Janinae, which includes the King Monkey and comprises 29 species, and Striphnopteryginae, which consists of 55 species including the Clay Monkey.

The family Lasiocampidae (commonly referred to as Eggars and Lappets) represents the largest group within the Bombycoidea, comprising 237 species distributed across two subfamilies. These moths range from medium to large in size, characterized by densely setose bodies and proportionally smaller wings than other members of the superfamily. A distinctive behavioural trait is their tendency to rest with the leading edge of the hindwings protruding in front of the forewings, as shown by this Rose Eggar and Related Lappet.

Notably, the larvae are conspicuously large relative to the adult forms and are frequently equipped with detachable bristles that can induce dermatological irritation upon contact. The term ‘Lappets’ denotes the presence of thoracic flaps on some larvae, which bear clusters of these bristles; when threatened, the larvae will vigorously move these structures, thereby maximizing the defensive effect. Similar to members of the Eupterotidae family, adult Lasiocampidae lack functional mouthparts and do not feed.

The Saturniidae family, commonly referred to as Emperor Moths, encompasses the largest and most visually prominent species within Bombycoidea. This group comprises 86 species native to South Africa, including some of the world’s largest moths. Many members display vivid coloration and eyespots on their wings—typically present on all four wings, though occasionally restricted to the hindwings—which are concealed by the forewings and only revealed as an anti-predator response when threatened. Wahlberg’s Emperor demonstrates a defence mechanism unique to this group by dropping to the ground and rapidly opening and closing its wings to intensify its visual display. The African Moon Moth is one of several species found globally that have elongated comet-like tails, which may serve to confuse predators during flight. In South Africa, the largest representatives of this family achieve wingspans of approximately 200 mm, while smaller species such as Delegorgue’s Prince exhibit male wingspans of just 40–50 mm. Certain caterpillars can grow up to 100 mm in length, with many bearing urticating bristles. Although the caterpillar of Wahlberg’s Emperor appears unpalatable, it is, in fact, edible; this species and others, such as the Mopane Worm, form part of the human diet in Africa.

Like the Lasiocampidae and Eupterotidae, Saturniidae adults lack a functioning proboscis and cannot feed.

Most adult members of the superfamily Bombycoidea are characterized by slow flight and limited aerobatic capabilities. An exception is found in the family Sphingidae, or Hawkmoths, which comprises 121 species in South Africa. As suggested by their common name, these insects possess streamlined bodies reminiscent of raptorial birds, giving them an appearance adapted for speed.

Within South Africa, three subfamilies of Hawkmoths are present. The Sphinginae, which includes the Death’s-head Hawkmoth, are robust insects noted for their capacity for strong flight. Macroglossinae, which includes the Silver-striped Hawkmoth, represent the fastest-flying Hawkmoths and possess elongated proboscides that enable them to access nectar from flowers with deep corollas. While both Sphinginae and Macroglossinae are capable of feeding as adults, the third subfamily, Smerinthinae—including the Mulberry Hawkmoth—lacks a functional proboscis and, like other Bombycoidea, cannot feed during adulthood.

Hawkmoth larvae are readily identified by the distinctive ‘tail horn,‘ as observed on the caterpillar of the Death’s-head Hawkmoth.

There are many more kinds of moths than we’ve been able to cover here!

If this has whetted your appetite to know more about the Dark Side… this excellent book by Hermann Staude, Mike Picker, and Charles Griffiths is the resource you need.

‘Southern African Moths and their Caterpillars’ has over 1500 images of species most often seen in the region. People will find it useful in navigating what can be a huge and confusing subject.

If you find a specimen that isn’t in the book the chances are that a relative is covered. This will allow you to use the search function on the Afromoths website to fine tune your identification.

Even that has its limitations though, because new discoveries are constantly being made. Especially among the ‘micro moths’.

What are all those white butterflies?

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

What are all those little white butterflies ?

Every so often we are inundated with them. Let's find out more...

White butterflies stand out against most backgrounds and make themselves obvious! Some of them may occur in large swarms we call ‘migrations’ but that’s not really a helpful description. ‘Migration’ implies travelling from A to B, and a return journey, as do birds like Swallows or mammals like the Wildebeest in East Africa. With butterflies there may be an overall direction they follow but they are too short-lived to travel very far to a destination in one generation and then return as adults. Sometimes it’s merely a case of conditions favouring a mass emergence of adults in a particular area.

All those little white dots fluttering across the landscape can appear confusingly similar to one another from a distance. If we look closer, we might see subtle differences in size, colouring or markings. When we look at them more closely it can become obvious that we aren’t looking at a generic ‘white butterfly’.

In Europe white butterflies are sometimes viewed as pests. This is because the caterpillars of some species, like the Large White, Pieris brassicae, are capable of damaging valuable crops like brassicas, or cabbages. In English this gave them the name ‘Cabbage White’. Because many farmers in South Africa originated in Europe this name stuck to all our white butterflies even if their caterpillars never touch cabbage!

Some of Africa’s white butterflies are common and widespread and there are several species like that. Others are less common but get mixed in with the rest. With a few exceptions in other families, the white butterflies we see in Africa are in the same family seen around the world – the Pieridae.

Here we’ll show you some examples to help you recognise the ones you’ll see most often.

Let’s start with the Caper Whites, genus Belenois. These are smallish butterflies with wingspans of 40-50mm. Pioneer Caper White is the well-known one that often swarms just before Christmas and usually flies in an easterly direction. In Southern Africa they appear to originate in the Kgalagadi region, but they’re found across the drier areas of Africa to Kenya, Tanzania and Nigeria. They are also found in Madagascar and as far east as western India and Sri Lanka. The female in particular has more brown colouring that explains its alternative common name of ‘Brown-veined White’.

African Caper White is less likely to be found in arid country; in South Africa it’s found in the moister savanna and forests in Limpopo, Mpumalanga, eSwatini, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. It can also swarm in large numbers and appears to get ‘caught up’ in Pioneer Caper White swarms.

Females of both species tend to have more extensive dark borders than males, and more yellow colouration.

Males of African Caper White are often mistaken for Pioneers because their upper sides are quite similar. Try to have a look at the underside hindwing because its markings are different with a lot more yellow. Female African Caper Whites have very wide dark borders and are difficult to mistake for any other ‘white’ butterfly – their upper sides are more often cream or even yellow.

One Belenois species that tends not to swarm is the Forest Caper White, Belenois zochalia zochalia. It’s found in moist Afromontane forests along the eastern escarpment, as well as in forest remnants in the Magaliesberg and Witwatersrand in Gauteng. They are quite variable in appearance. Not all females have the lovely yellow hindwings, and the inland examples have less well-marked undersides.

Their caterpillars feed on plants in the Caper family, Capparaceae. They use mostly Boscia, Capparis, and Maerua species.

This genus of butterflies is in the Pierinae subfamily of the family Pierinae.

Closely related to the genus Belenois – until recently it was in that genus – is the genus Pseudanaphaeis, which only contains one species, the Pointed Caper White. They are easily mistaken for Pioneer Caper Whites but they are distinguished by their pointed forewing tips and the underside hindwings that have a postdiscal extra row of dark marks and have a ‘streaky’ appearance.

Unlike the Pioneer Caper White there is a yellow form of the female, form doubledayi.

This species is found in frost-free savanna all over tropical and subtropical Africa. They may take part in multi-species migrations.

The other well-known ‘migrant’ is the African Migrant, Catopsilia florella. It’s a larger butterfly than the Caper Whites, with a wingspan between 55 and 65mm, females being larger. It’s the only local white butterfly in the Pierid subfamily Coliadinae.

Their name is appropriate – they definitely do migrate. Sometimes they fly en masse in an easterly direction, but often they are simply ‘everywhere’! The caterpillars feed on plants in the Fabaceae (bean and pea) family, especially in the genera Senna and Cassia. The so-called ‘Peanut Butter Cassia’, Senna didymobotrya, is probably the most popular host plant. It’s a very widespread invasive weed, which probably explains the extreme abundance of the adults after good rains.

Like many other ‘whites’ the males are often found sucking salt-laden moisture from wet mud. They need the salts to develop their male gametes (sperm) and improve their chances of successful mating. Wet cement, as seen here, can be very attractive to them. Males are usually greenish white with a pale-yellow underside when fresh, which fades to greenish white. As they age the pigments change chemically, and really old males can be sky-blue.

Females are variable in colour with two main forms: bright yellow (form florella) and creamy-white (form hyblaea). Intermediates are sometimes seen. The yellow forms tend to be more numerous in winter when many plants’ leaves turn yellow. They are sometimes seen seeking out such leaves and hiding amongst them to shelter from the cold.

Most of our white butterflies are in the subfamily Pierinae. The genus Dixeia (Ant-heap Whites) bear certain similarities to the Caper Whites in the genus Belenois. They are in the same subtribe, Aporiina. They tend not to swarm in large numbers but after good rains there may be plenty on the wing.

African Ant-heap White, Dixeia charina charina, is slightly smaller than the Belenois species with a wingspan of 34-42mm. The males are very plain above and not easy to tell apart from the other common Dixeia in our area, Small Ant-heap White, Dixeia pigea. Unless you can see the underside, that is. African Ant-heap White male undersides always have black speckles on a white ground. The weight and pattern vary according to the season and habitat. The example on the right is about the average.

Females are more heavily marked with a dark spot on the forewing as shown. They are generally a warmer, creamier white. Like the males the degree of dark speckling on the underside hindwing varies.

This butterfly abounds on the southeastern side of South Africa and is often found in the arid thickets of the Eastern Cape. Further north it occurs in East Africa as far north as Ethiopia and on Madagascar.

Ant-heap Whites get their common name from the tendency of some species to congregate around anthills (termite mounds). One of the host plants is Cadaba termitaria, known as the Grey-leaved Worm Bush, but most of them feed on the related Capparis species (Caper-bushes) or Maerua (Bush-cherries). These also tend to grow on termite mounds; the well-drained, nutrient-rich soil helps them to grow quickly and develop lush foliage.

Small Ant-heap White, Dixeia pigea is on average slightly larger (wingspan 40-52mm) than African Ant-heap White, which makes its common name a bit strange! The males are very similar above, but Small Ant-heap White males lack the speckling on the underside – there is usually a series of submarginal black spots as shown on these mud-puddling individuals. The other way to tell them apart is that Small Ant-heap White has an ochre-coloured edge to the costa of the underside hindwing, which African Ant-heap White lacks.

The females are enormously variable in both colour and extent of dark markings. In general, dry season forms have less extensive dark marks, and wet season forms, more. Form pigea is the ‘typical’ form. Form alba is a dry season form with reduced marginal black. Form rubrobasalis has reddish-orange wing bases rather like a Dotted Border (see below). Form luteola is a rare totally-orange form from the northern part of the butterfly’s range in South Africa. Form lutea is a very attractive deep yellow form from KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga.

This butterfly is on the wing all year round, being commoner in the summer months. It is found across a vast area of Africa, in heavy savanna and moist woodland, as far north as Ethiopia and west to Cameroon, as well as Madagascar. Under optimal conditions it may swarm in large numbers.

Genus Appias are another type of ‘little white butterfly’ from a different subtribe, the Appiadina. This is more widespread in Asia where they have the name ‘Gulls’ as well as Albatrosses. The two local species, Eastern Diverse Albatross Appias epaphia contracta and East African Albatross Appias sabina phoebe are very similar in the males with wingspans in the 40-55mm range, and their upper sides are white with streaky black marks at the forewing tip and outer margin. Eastern Diverse Albatross is common along the eastern side of South Africa in forest and heavy woodland and extends across most or Africa. East African Albatross is also widely distributed in Africa, but in South Africa is confined to the eastern areas of Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and eSwatini. Until recently it was a very rare sighting locally, but it has spread southwards in recent years.

The way to tell the males apart is to examine the underside of the base of the forewings. East African Albatross is plain white there. Eastern Diverse Albatross has a similar yellow flush to the hindwing.

The females are quite easy; Eastern Diverse Albatross is a black and white butterfly with the black borders being wide in wet season specimens and narrower in the dry season. East African Albatross females have similar wing margins to the males but have an orange wing base like a Dotted Border; some individuals have all-yellow hindwings. This species is seldom seen in South Africa – you have to go to the forests to see it.

These species do not ‘migrate’ or swarm, but they may become caught up with other species that are swarming. The two species have different host plants. Eastern Diverse Albatross uses a wide range of plants in the Capparaceae – Boscia, Cadaba, Capparis, and Maerua, as well as Cleome (Cleomaceae) and Salvadora (Salvadoraceae). In South Africa, East African Albatross is only known to use Drypetes gerrardii (Putranjivaceae)

Another member of subtribe Aporiina is the genus Mylothris. This is different to the other genera in the subtribe; its larval host plants are in the family Santalaceae (Loranthaceae), and the adults contain toxins metabolised from the host plants by the larvae.

The adults do not migrate or swarm but may be found in large numbers where their host plants grow in abundance. There are three species in South Africa, two being common – Twin Dotted Border Mylothris rüppellii haemus and Eastern Dotted Border Mylothris agathina agathina (which is the more widespread). A third, Sulphur Dotted Border, Mylothris trimenia, is rare and confined to cool Afromontane forests in the east.

Female Twin Dotted Border is seen here ovipositing on the hemiparasitic Hairy Mistletoe Erianthemum dregei. The other two species use the same plant, but Eastern Dotted Border uses, in addition, Cape Sumach Osyris compressa and African sandalwood Osyris lanceolata, which widens its range to cover Cape Town.

Like many distasteful butterfly species, Dotted Borders tend to have a slow, leisurely flight pattern. Other species of Pierid may mimic Dotted Borders, like the females of the Small Ant-heap White form rubrobasalis and the East African Albatross (among others). This is almost certainly a form of mimicry as seen in butterflies like the female Common Diadem, Hypolimnas misippus.

Finally, we come to subtribe Pierina, which has the classic Brassica-feeding ‘whites’ typical of the northern hemisphere. The only native member of this group is the African Meadow White, Pontia helice. It’s a dainty, small butterfly with a wingspan of 35-43mm. It’s often the first butterfly to emerge in spring, sometimes as early as August. Males are pure white on the upper side with a black wingtip containing white spots; there is a square spot at the end of the forewing cell, and the hindwings are white with dark marginal marks and tracery along the veins. The female has a dark spot at the inner margin of the forewing, and a grey postdiscal band on the hindwing containing a row of white marginal spots.

African Meadow White is often mistaken for the Pioneer Caper White because it has superficially similar markings. On the upper side a close inspection will show that the forewing tips are smaller than those of the African Meadow White and contain fewer white spots. The mark at the end of the cell is not as square in Pioneer Caper White as it is in African Meadow White and it’s often teardrop shaped or joins with a dark costal band. The undersides can look similar as well but the dark lines along the hindwing veins are black or brown in Pioneer Caper White whereas in African Meadow White they are made up of a micro-mosaic of yellow and black scales.

African Meadow White larvae do not feed on Capparaceae; they only use Brassicaceae like Rocket Eruca sativa, Sweet Alyssum Lobularia maritima, Indian Mustard Brassica juncea or Peppercresses Lepidium species. They haven’t been recorded feeding on cabbages Brassica oleracea so it’s a bit of an insult when people call them ‘Cabbage Whites’!

The famous ‘Cabbage White’ (also Pierina) actually DOES fly in South Africa. It’s not 100% certain that ‘Cabbage White’ refers to this species or the even more destructive (to crops) Small White Pieris rapae, which does not occur here despite many people using Google and getting it wrong. So far it hasn’t developed a reputation for being a pest of Brassica crops here. It appeared in the Western Cape in 1994 and has spread along the coastal hinterland as far west as Oudtshoorn and as far north as Swakopmund in Namibia. So far, it appears to prefer the exotic garden subject Nasturtium (Tropaeolum sp.) as its host plant, and is common on the Cape Peninsula.

A flash of blue in the canopy – the Southern Sapphire

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

A flash of blue in the canopy - the Southern Sapphire

Shining white underneath. stunning blue above

The butterfly family Lycaenidae, also known as Gossamer-winged Butterflies, includes some of the most visually striking small butterflies globally. Despite their diminutive size, they possess considerable aesthetic appeal. In Africa, the genus Iolaus, or Sapphires, belonging to the subfamily Theclinae, comprises some of the most prominent species. Male Sapphires often occupy elevated positions on forest edges or hilltops, actively defending their territory against other butterflies. Female Sapphires are typically found on flowers or in proximity to host plants.

Sapphires are relatively large compared to other Lycaenids. The Southern Sapphire, Iolaus silas, is native to the southeast coast of South Africa, ranging from Gqeberha to Richards Bay. The wingspan of males measures between 32 and 37 mm, while females have a wingspan of 34 to 41 mm. At the northern edge of its distribution, it intergrades with the Straight-line Sapphire, Iolaus silarus. This species is similar to the Southern Sapphire in all stages of its life cycle. Adult butterflies can be distinguished by the shape of the thin red line across the outer part of the hindwing; this line is curved in the Southern Sapphire but straight in the Straight-line Sapphire, as reflected in their common names.

Male butterflies are highly noticeable as they perch on elevated leaves and twigs, their pearly white undersides reflecting the sunlight. They seem to choose trees with glossy foliage, which also reflects sunlight and may provide camouflage protection for the butterflies. These males exhibit strong territorial behaviour; upon spotting a potential rival, they initiate a high-speed chase, circling each other until they vanish into the sky. When encountering a female, a courtship flight occurs, with the male pursuing his prospective mate into the foliage where mating transpires.

There are twelve species of Iolaus Sapphire found in South Africa; all except one exhibit more or less shiny blue on the upper side, with the exception being the Saffron Sapphire, which is yellow. Notably, several other Sapphires display stripes of contrasting colours on the undersides. These butterflies are highly regarded by lepidopterists and photographers alike. Their propensity for high flight can present challenges for photography; however, locating caterpillars can be relatively straightforward if one is familiar with the appropriate host plants, facilitating their rearing to adulthood.

♂ Southern Sapphires showing their territorial behaviour. The ♀ shows the more powder-blue upper side typical of female Sapphires, with extensive white patches. She also has more extensive red along the hind wing upper side margins.

This series of images show the life history of Iolaus silas.

The fertilised female lays her eggs singly, on leaves the host plant Hairy Mistletoe, Erianthemum dregei. This plant is a hemiparasite of trees including the invasive White Syringa, Melia azedarach. It is not a full parasite since it produces chlorophyll and photosynthesizes, but it hijacks the host tree’s water supply.

The eggs are pure white and conspicuous; they are easy to find even though they are tiny (0.75 mm diameter x 0.5 mm high). The young larva is not so easy to find since it covers itself with the tiny hairs on the plant’s leaves (that give it its name). Shown here is a first instar larva of Straight-line Sapphire, Iolaus silarus silarus, which is essentially indistinguishable from that of Iolaus silas. The others shown are silas. By third instar they are still covering themselves with plant hairs but are beginning to resemble a leaf of the host plant. The fourth instar shown in situ shows how effective this camouflage is. The final two instars eat a notch out of the leaf edge and hide within it, making them almost impossible to spot.

The pupa closely resembles a seed of the host plant. Birds eat the flesh of the fruits, discarding the sticky seeds by wiping their bill on the bark of a tree, or a convenient leaf. This is how the plant is propagated. Birds being unlikely to eat seeds that they have discarded as inedible, thus the pupae gain protection.

Distribution

The Southern Sapphire, Iolaus silas, is endemic to the southeast coast of South Africa, ranging from Gqeberha to Richards Bay. Its primary habitat is lowland forest.

Forest edges, hilltops, and clearings are the best places to see them.

Their flight period is all year in warmer areas, September to January in the southern, cooler part of their range.

These images show typical habitat for the Southern Sapphire, Iolaus silas . Walking along the edge of a lowland forest, watching the canopy edge, is a good way to see them. Hilltops above coastal forests like Fort Pearson at Harold Johnson Nature Reserve are also good viewing spots.

Other local Iolaus species found in the same areas as the Southern Sapphire

These Iolaus species are found on the northern part of the Southern Sapphire’s range, with Red-line Sapphire Iolaus sidus having similar habits. Natal Yellow-banded Sapphire, Iolaus diametra natalica, is a seldom seen skulker that does not hilltop. It’s usually found in the thickets on the edges of coastal bush. Both species are easily distinguished from the Southern Sapphire by their smaller size (around 30mm) and brightly coloured underside markings.

Blood Red? Or Fire-engine Red? You choose…

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

Blood-red Acraea - how red is it actually?

Is it blood red? Or more like fire-engine red?

The tribe Acraeini of subfamily Heliconiinae, family Nymphalidae, includes numerous brightly coloured butterfly species. Many feature patches of red colouring, though few are entirely red. The genus Rubraea contains some of the most vividly red Acraeini. There are 48 species in Africa, 6 in South Africa. Some have a mix of orange and red, while others possess extensive clear (or hyaline) wing areas. The males exhibit the brightest colours, while females may be red but also tend to be brown or bronze with extensive black areas. Many females have white forewing tip patches that contrast with their ground colours.

The males of Rubraea petraea, commonly known as the Blood-red Acraea, display probably the deepest red within the genus. They are not completely red; unlike the red gliders (genus Cymothoë) of central Africa, they have black spots on their wings. When viewed against the green background of a forest glade, the red coloration is prominent despite the black spots.

Blood red is often described as ranging from crimson to brownish red depending on the level of oxygen in the blood. Males of Rubraea petraea often exhibit a more bluish shade of red that is probably closer to carmine than crimson. Fire-engine red, or Ferrari red, is perhaps a better description of their appearance. It’s a matter of opinion – look at some of the photos for examples. Males may have a whitish suffusion along the anal margin of the hindwings.

Female Blood-red Acraeas vary in hue from brick-red to brown to pale bronze. They have white patches at the apex of their forewings. These are usually white but may be suffused with pink.

The redness of Acraeini is affected by the age of the butterfly, with older ones fading to a paler, less saturated red or even brick-red. Dead, pinned specimens in collections soon fade to brownish red, even if stored in the dark. It may be that the red pigment oxidises and as it does so it may lose its vibrance.

The underside of both sexes has a ground colour of pale pink to whitish grey in the discal area with a mosaic of dark pink marks and black spots towards the base. The wing veins are picked out in black; between the veins are a series of orange to pink postdiscal marks. The hindwing underside has a black submarginal line with white marginal lunules.

Males form territories in clearings in the bush, periodically taking off to float over the canopy, settling on leaves or twigs with wings held open. Females tend to be located near their host plants but also patrol the woodlands. When a male spots a female, he may drop onto her from a height and forcibly mate with her. Both sexes exhibit a preference for flower nectar.

These four ♂ Blood-red Acraeas were all photographed in late summer and autumn. They show the colour variance with the one at the top L being a particularly deep fire-engine red.

These four ♀ Blood-red Acraeas show how variable they can be. Ground colour can vary from almost as bright red as a male, to brick-red, orange, or bronzy-brown.

The forewing tip patches vary from ‘bloodshot’ to bright shiny white. The undersides (below) vary in their redness but the basic pattern remains the same.

This series of images show the life history of Rubraea petraea. It begins with a male Blood-red Acraea forcibly mating a female, which is normal behaviour for Acraeini butterflies.

The fertilised female then lays her eggs in clusters, batches of fifty or more being common, on the host plant African Dog Rose, Xylotheca kraussiana. This plant has very attractive foliage and flowers and makes a good garden shrub or small tree, The larvae may defoliate it but the pruning is good for the plant and stimulates new growth.

The first instar larvae, upon hatching, are dull yellowish-ochre in colour with short black hairs and a glossy brownish-black head capsule. As they progress through subsequent instars, the hairs transform into branched spines characteristic of Nymphaline larvae. The spines on the thoracic segments are longer and more bunched together than the ones on the abdominal segments. This appears to be a trait of the genus Rubraea. The larvae are gregarious. Early instars eat the surface of the leaves, leaving a network of veins. Older ones eat the whole leaves and become less gregarious. When fully grown the larvae leave the host plant and seek pupation sites on nearby tree trunks, leaves, or rocks. They spin silken pads and hang downwards in a ‘J’ shape, preparing to pupate.

The pupae are variable in colour from dirty white to buff, orange-yellow or deep salmon. The wing cases have the veins outlined in black and the abdomen has a double row of salmon spots ringed in black. Large numbers may be found in the vicinity of the host plants.

Distribution

Blood-red Acraea’s primary habitat is lowland forest along the east coast of South Africa, Mozambique and Tanzania to Malawi and Kenya.

Forest edges and clearings are the best places to see them.

Their flight period is from November to February, but they may be found at other times of year, particularly April and sometimes as late as July.

These images show typical habitat for the Blood-red Acraea, Rubraea petraea . Areas that offer access to the forest canopy or along the edges of the forest are the best places to see this butterfly. They often come to flowers in grassy areas abutting the forest.

Other local Rubraea species found in the same areas as the Blood-red Acraea

Some Rubraea species are found in the same range as the Blood-red Acraea but are not forest species like that one. These two, Light Red and Speckled Red Acraea, are found in nearby grasslands. They are less common and more localised in their occurrence.

‘Shiver me timbers!’ our Pirate butterfly

The Lepidoptera Log - by Steve Woodhall

The 'Pirate'

Shiver me timbers - will you walk the plank for this beauty?

The Pirate, Catacroptera cloanthe, is a distinctive butterfly belonging to the Nymphalidae family (Brush-footed Butterflies) and the subfamily Nymphalinae (Admirals, Pansies, Commodores, Diadems, Mothers–of-Pearl, etc.). Although it bears a superficial resemblance to the Commodores (genus Precis, tribe Junoniini), it is uniquely the sole South African representative of the tribe Kallimini. The genus Catacroptera is classified as ‘monotypic’, indicating that it contains only one species. The Kallimini tribe comprises 18 species in total, including the notable Oakleaf butterflies of Southeast Asia (genus Kallima).

Its primary habitats are grassy savanna and grassland, with occurrences at various altitudes across the continent. They show a preference for stream sides and seeps, as well as hilltops and ridges. The nominate subspecies Catacroptera cloanthe cloanthe is found on the eastern side of Africa. In the Western Cape, it can be found near sea level around Mossel Bay and Knysna. At higher latitudes, it is located at higher elevations. Within the grassland and savanna biomes of South Africa, it is found up to 1600 meters around Gauteng. In Tanzania, it ranges from 300 meters to 2200 meters, and in Kenya, as high as 2500 meters. Specimens are typically observed either singly or in small groups within grassy areas. They are highly cautious and easily startled, often flying 20-50 meters before settling again. The patient photographer will find that if they avoid sudden movements, and give the butterflies time to get used to their presence, habituation is possible and good images will follow.

Males frequently perch on small prominences or tall herbs to survey their territories and may also settle on bare ground or rocks. Females tend to be located near their host plants. Both sexes exhibit a preference for flower nectar, particularly from Blue Haze flowers (Tetraselago species), and are known to be attracted by fermenting fruit baits.

The West African subspecies Catacroptera cloanthe ligata is smaller, darker, and inhabits grassland and savanna from The Gambia to Nigeria and Cameroon.

The fiery orange coloration of the upper side of these butterflies is complemented by a shifting purplish-blue lustre that is perceptible only from certain angles. Conversely, the underside exhibits a more subdued pattern in brown and cream tones. Individuals seen during winter (dry season form) display darker undersides and upper sides compared to those observed in summer (wet season form).

In South Africa, their primary flight period extends from August to April. These butterflies have a relatively long adult lifespan, with the same individuals occupying territories for two to three months, showing signs of wear over time. Females are typically larger and paler in colour compared to males.

The late summer form Pirate ♂, on the left, was photographed in February. He’s showing the purplish flush over his wings when viewed at a grazing angle. The ♀ was photographed in April.

The ♀ Pirate at top left, nectaring on Natal Blue Haze, Tetraselago natalensis, was photographed in March, the peak period for this flower. The male underside at top right was photographed in September at the end of winter. He’s nectaring on Blue Squill, Merwilla plumbea.

The ♀ Pirate at bottom left has just emerged from her chrysalis in the month of March. The ♂ at bottom right was photographed in late August and is more typical of a winter form.

These images show the unique spiky appearance of the cilia, or fringe of wing edge scales, that typifies this species.

This series of images show the life history of Catacroptera cloanthe. Pirates use a wide range of larval host plants in the family Acanthaceae. This includes Bush Violets (Barleria), Fairy Stars (Dyschoriste setigera), Justicia species and Wild petunias (Ruellia species).

Their eggs are typical of the Nymphalinae – rounded barrel shapes with pronounced vertical ribs and faint cross-ribs. They are green, darkening to black as the larva develops inside.

The first instar larvae, upon hatching, exhibit a yellowish-brown coloration with black hairs and a glossy black head capsule. As they progress through subsequent instars, the hairs transform into branched spikes characteristic of Nymphaline larvae. The head capsule develops short horns which, by the final instar, evolve into elongated knobbed structures that resemble but do not function as the antennae of an adult butterfly. The head capsule transitions to a glossy yellow adorned with black bands, while the body becomes yellow with prominent black hoops.

The pupa exhibits a yellowish-green hue, which is atypical for a Nymphaline chrysalis. This colouration may provide effective camouflage when the pupa is situated among grass.

Distribution

The Pirate is found across the eastern and northern side of South Africa,wherever there is suitable grassland or grassy savanna habitat. It avoids the more arid areas and the karoo biomes and fynbos.

It is found up to 1600 meters around Gauteng but not in the highest Drakensberg grasslands. It occupies grasslands at low altitude from Mossel Bay to the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coastal hinterland. Further north it occurs in suitable habitat up to 2200 meters in Tanzania and Kenya.

A separate subspecies occurs in West Africa.

These images show typical habitat for the Pirate, Catacroptera cloanthe cloanthe. Short grass with plenty of flowers and seeps along the slopes. And plenty of rocks for the butterflies to sunbathe on!

Magoebaskloof Forest King ♂

Western Forest King ♂

Midlands Forest King ♂

Midlands Forest King ♀

Midlands Forest King ♂

Magoebaskloof Forest King ♂

Forest King ♀

Midlands Forest King ♀

Magoebaskloof Forest King ♀

Western Forest King ♀

Western Forest King ♀

Magoebaskloof Forest King ♀

Blue-spotted Charaxes ♂

Blue-spotted Charaxes ♂

Blue-spotted Charaxes ♀

Blue-spotted Charaxes ♀

Golden Giant Cupid

Golden Giant Cupid

Langeberg Skolly

Millar's Large Buff ♂

Natal Yellow-banded Sapphire

Southern Forest-king Charaxes ♂

Bicoloured Paradise Skipper ♂

Witsand Ciliate Blue ♂

Southern Large Glasswing ♂

Wakkerstroom Widow ♂

White-spotted Sapphire ♀

Greyton Dark Ranger ♀

Diamond Opal ♂

Estcourt Giant Cupid ♂

Southern Amakosa Rocksitter ♂

Zulu Yellow Buff ♂

Piketberg Mintha Veined Widow ♂

Red Hill Russet ♀

Toothed Russet ♀

De Hoop Scarce Silver-spotted Copper ♀

Worcester Opal ♂

White-spotted Ketsi Giant Cupid ♂

Karkloof Blue/Cupid ♀

Yellowish Amakosa Rocksitter ♂

Southern Induna Telchinia ♀

Midlands Widow ♂

Unique Ranger ♂

Waterberg Acraea Copper ♂

Adonis Opal ♂

Wolseley Skolly♂

Dickson's Strandveld Copper ♂

Brenton Blue/Cupid ♀

iNkomasi Protea ♂

Wolkberg Zulu ♀

Paarl Scarce Silver-spotted Copper ♂

Swartland Silver-spotted Copper♂

Brenton Opal ♂

Brenton Opal♂

Tygerberg Monkey Giant Cupid ♂

Mbashe River Large Buff ♀

Geluksburg Giant Cupid ♂

Geluksburg Giant Cupid ♂

African Grass Blue courting pair (♀ R)

African Grass Blue ♂

African Grass Blue ♂

African Grass Blue ♀

African Grass Blue ♀

African Grass Blue ♂

African Grass Blue ♂

African Grass Blue with identification pointers

African Clover Blue ♂

African Clover Blue ♂

African Clover Blue ♀

African Clover Blue ♀

African Clover Blue mating pair

African Clover Blue ♀ on 'Sweetheart' flower

African Clover Blue ♂

African Clover Blue with identification pointers

Tiny Grass Blue ♂

Tiny Grass Blue ♂

Tiny Grass Blue ♀

Tiny Grass Blue ♀

Tiny Grass Blue ♀

Tiny Grass Blue ♀ on Sticky Acanth